A Close Critical Reading of Elizabeth Bishop’s “The Fish” Essay

Humans do not only learn from each other’s experiences. Sometimes, things in nature create within an observer or participant of a phenomenon in nature, a profound realization about life. Elizabeth Bishop’s â€Å"The Fish† shares to the reader a said effect. The poem describes a simple fishing experience, but the event, prompted by a particular fish that the speaker catches, awakens within him a sense of awe as to the worth of the otherwise everyday sea creature. The narrative poem has a simple story. It is about someone who goes fishing one day. After the speaker catches the fish, however, it becomes an object of curiosity for him. The introspection begins an internal struggle as to whether he should keep the fish or not. In the end, he chooses to throw it back into the sea. Using a number of literary devices, however, Bishop is able to dramatize through words the internal struggle and in the process, illuminates and heightens the ordinary experience. The fish, for one, is not described as an object. It is referred to as a â€Å"he†. This personification, however, is not to give the fish human attributes but to clue the reader that the poem is about more than catching a fish. The fish remains a fish all throughout the poem, but it is in the speaker’s mind that it becomes symbolic and therefore to be treated as an ordinary fish by the reader. More than this, it is actually the imagery, the similes and metaphors, which the writer uses to physically describe the fish that appeals the reader’s senses and sympathy for the fish which, in turn, lifts the poem to its higher meaning. â€Å"He (the fish) didn’t fight† (5) when the speaker catches him. Its skin is like â€Å"like wallpaper†¦stained and lost through age† (13-15). On its jaw â€Å"hung five old pieces of fish-line†¦all their five big hooks/grown firmly in his mouth† (51, 54-55). This set of imagery suggests that this particular fish is old and has fought a lot of battles already. Its body has suffered the scars of past struggles and is battle-worn. The simile of the five fish hooks as being compared by the poet to â€Å"medals with their ribbons†¦a five-haired beard of wisdom† (61, 63) recalls to the reader’s mind the medals on the suit of a five-star general who has fought wars and come out of them battle-scarred yet proud of every ribbon and scar. There is a tone of respect upon the speaker for the fish. At this point in the poem especially, the second half of the long single-stanza, there is an irony in the transformation of the creature from ordinary fish in the first line to the revered creature in the latter part of the poem. This reverence is what convinces the speaker to â€Å"let the fish go† (76). The act of letting go, too, is another ironic event in that any fisherman would not let go of something he has worked hard to get. But to the poet, it is not a waste of effort because it is a show of his respect for the fish. After staring at the fish for a long time, â€Å"victory filled up/ the little rented boat† (65-66), the speaker expresses. It is a score of victory for the fish because its scars have convinced the speaker that this fish has fought all its life and now deserves respect for being a survivor. Ultimately, the poem could be seen as an allegory to the beauty of a survivor’s ugly scars and physical deformities. The fish, with its rough skin â€Å"infested with tiny white sea-lice† (19) hanged with â€Å"rags of green weed† (21) and â€Å"five old pieces of fish-line† (51) stuck in its mouth, has grown ugly with age. Yet, these marks are not simply brought about by age but from years of struggling and freeing itself from past attempts of other fishermen to catch it. Those are its own marks of beauty and honor. Reference: Bishop, Elizabeth. â€Å"The Fish†.

Ethics and the Professional Code of Conduct Essay

Reasons ethics and integrity are important for a police chief or county sheriff. In today’s society, it is not an easy job being a county sheriff or a police chief. The society has become over-critical of law enforcement and the person on top of the chain of command has fully responsibility of all actions on him/her since there are responsible for making the important decisions as to what is morally upright (Perez & Moore, 2012). How the police relate to the public since they need to have the confidence of the public to ensure community policing work. Ethics and integrity are important to a police chief since they help him make day to day decisions in the police force. Some of the unethical behavior that police officers engage include; theft, over speeding, misuse of public office and excessive use of force. The set code of conduct will help a police chief to deal with the officers who are engaged in unethical behavior without discrimination or corruption. Ethics will help pol ice chief in making important decisions in the force. Assigning duties to different officers will require the chief to follow ethics and assign duties to officers according to their performance and not discriminate other officers. This will ensure there is equality in the force which will greatly contribute to the overall performance of the force. When there is integrity from the seniors other officers will follow suit making the entire force more productive in performing their duties. Ethics and integrity will also help a police chief to report cases from his force with honesty to his seniors. This will ensure that he reports truthfully of all the activities of his county. This will lead to a proper relationship with the seniors and this helps in the positive development of the force. When ethics and integrity are practiced in the force it increases the public confidence with the force which in turn improves the collaboration of the public and police in fighting crime. Difference between ethics, integrity and morality within law enforcement. Integrity refers to the state of feeling whole and unbroken by ones actions. It’s the quality of being honest and morally upright (Killinger, 2010). A police office needs to be honest in his actions and always be willing to tell the truth. He should not be involved in activities that would ruin his integrity and in the process damage his reputation. Ethics refers to a set code of conduct. Each profession has its ethics which are generally accepted standard of what is desirable and undesirable. It is what is considered by the society to be good or bad behavior of a person or an entity. Ethics may also include a defined basis of discipline including exclusion (Bonhoeffer & Clifford, 2005). A police officer should always be ethical and not be involved in activities like excessive use of force or abuse of the public office which is unethical and would ruin the image of the police force to the general public. Morality on the other side refers to the ability of a person to differentiate between right and wrong. This greatly helps police officers while making decisions which are spot on. Officers need to be morally upright to ensure that in all the situations they can differentiate what is right or wrong and take the necessary actions. Ways a police chief or county sheriff should use ethics and the code of conduct in decision making. A police is always presented with decisions in which he has to be ethical when making them. One of them is when assigning duties to other officers. He needs to assign duties to the officers according to their abilities and not to discriminate, example, assigning his friends the simple jobs available. He is needs to be ethical when dealing with the cases which are reported. He should not discriminate if he knows the accused or if they are relatives and all the rules should apply to every criminal regardless of the relation with him. By being ethical, the public level of confidence rises and working with the police becomes easier since there is trust between the t wo (Josephson, 2009). References Bonhoeffer, D., & Clifford J, J. G. (2005). Ethics. Killinger, B. (2010). Integrity: Doing the Right Thing for the Right Reason. Perez, D., & Moore, J. (2012). Police Ethics. Josephson, M. (2009). Becoming an Exemplary Peace Officer: The Guide to Ethical Decision Making.

Autism 2

Autism 2 Essay There are many diseases and disorders that plague todays society, but one of the most serious of those disorders is autism. Autism is not nearly as widely known as the familiar Downs Syndrome, yet, surprisingly, autism is far more widespread. In fact, autism is the third most common developmental disability, affecting 400,000 people worldwide (Autism Society of America). As of yet there is no cure for this debilitating disorder, only a variety of treatments. Autism is a developmental disability, not a mental illness, that typically appears during the first three years of life and affects 15 of every 10,000 individuals. No one is certain why it occurs, but researchers have found that MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging) scans of people with autism show abnormalities in the structure of the brain. Significant abnormalities include differences in the cerebellum and in the size and number of Purkinje cells within the brain. Sometimes there is a pattern that exists within families from generation to generation. This indicates the possibility that autism is genetically related. However, no gene has been found. Every person with autism is different and there is no set type or typical person with autism. This is because autism is a spectrum disorder, meaning that symptoms and characteristics of the disorder can present themselves in a variety of ways, from mild to severe. Usually children with autism have deficiencies in both verbal and non-verbal communication. Their language develops slowly or not at all and they have very short attention spans. They often lack social skills and will spend time alone, rather than with others. In more severe cases, children have unusual reactions to physical sensations such as being overly sensitive to touch or under responsive to pain. Most commonly, children with autism lack imagination and imitate others ideas, rather than initiate their own. Lastly, behavior is greatly affected by autism. They may be overactive or very passive and throw frequent tantrums, injuring themselves, for no apparent reason other than to gather attention. They often lack common sense and show aggressive or violent behavior. While some people only show one or two symptoms, others have all or nearly all and find it extremely difficult to function in society. People with autism do live normal life spans and the behaviors associated may change or disappear over time. As of yet, there is no cure for autism. However, with the proper treatment, many of the behaviors can be positively changed. Some of the treatments include behavioral training, teaching of communication and social skills, auditory training, medications, and a change in diet. Behavioral training or modification, as it is also called, deals with changing or extinguishing inappropriate behaviors and increasing positive behaviors. A few methods are used to do this. One way is self-management where the individual monitors their behavior and receives self-reinforcement. Another method used is modeling. This is when the teacher or therapist demonstrates what is being done so the child can model the steps. Behavioral training is effective in stopping self-inflicted pain by shaping and distributing positive reinforcement. The teaching of communication and social skills is an integral part of treating autism. Speech therapy may include gaining language skills or learning sign language. Some devices are used frequently such as picture communication boards. Another device is used with a trained professional supporting the hand or arm of the person helping them to punch keys on a device. This technique, called facilitated communication, is highly controversial because it is sometimes thought that the facilitator is directing the persons arm unknowingly. One of the main characteristics of autism is the lack of understanding of social cues (Autism Society of America). The person with autism may be taught how to communicate in social situations or respond to certain facial expressions and emotions. If the emphasis is on social communication, a speech therapist will work closely with the child to ensure proper communication in social situations. Auditory training is sometimes used for those individuals who are oversensitive to sound. An audiologist plays a different variety of sound frequencies in this therapy. Food allergies and sensitivities have been shown to produce a variety of symptoms associated with autism .

Investment in Nike Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 4

Investment in Nike - Essay Example The dividends discount model makes a comparison between future forecasted dividends with the firm’s current share price and then applies the firm’s growth rate to get the total figure. Many experts believe that the dividend discount model (DDM) greatly benefits investors because it makes investors think about the different market scenarios depending on how the stock is performing. Furthermore, the dividend discount model relies upon a lot of speculation in attempting to predict future dividends. This implies that the outcomes of this model are based around generalizations that are made. It is usually hard to determine the correct growth rate because a company most likely has a wide range of growth rates over a long period of time due to the fluctuating economy. It is for this reason alone that analysts do not tend to make projections based on past growth rates. Above all, there are no direct adjustments for risk with the dividends discount model. The earnings capitalization model (ECM) is basic and easy enough to understand by practically anyone because it determines the value of a business by looking at the current benefit of realizing cash flow in the short-term, rather than in the long-term. However, this model does not accurately estimate equity costs for firms that are expanding, so it is predominantly used only for firms that are experiencing zero growth. The Discounted Cash Flow Analysis in Exhibit 2 demonstrated that, at a discount rate of 12 percent, Nike’s current share price was overvalued at $42.09. But a sensitivity analysis disclosed that Nike was undervalued at discount rates lower than 11.2 percent. We came up with an appropriate discount rate—Weighted Average Cost of Capital (WACC). This formula showed that the discount rate was less than 11.2 percent at around 10.59 percent.  

Literature Review Bachelor Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Literature Review Bachelor - Essay Example The extent to which the employees feel motivated to put the best foot forward depends upon the policies adopted by the company in towards motivation. Theory Y assumes that all employees have key roles to play in running the organization and management's role is to develop the potential in employees and help them to release that potential towards common goals. The biggest drawback of McGregor's theory is that it sort of draws a dividing line. But in practice there's no such fine dividing line between type X and type Y. An organization cannot have all the people having similar capability and attitude towards work. Similarly all the students in a classroom cannot have similar calibre and IQ. Moreover a person who behaves in a particular manner today may come around and start taking things in different perspective once the manager takes him in confidence and makes him understand couple of things. Sometimes circumstances prevail upon the person and he starts behaving in a different way. Motivation may be defined as the state of an individual's perspective which represents the strength of his/ her natural inclination to exert efforts towards some particular behaviour. How somebody makes use of his/ her efforts towards a goal is determined by the motivating/ de-motivating factors. It is through their behaviour that employees give expression to their commitment to work, level of motivation and their attitudes. Behaviour includes all actions overt or covert, and verbal or non-verbal. This affects the overall efficiency of the person and the performance of the organization. For Primark, the main target segment includes the youth segment. This under 35 segment prefers to go for the trendy fashion, requires quality at reasonable prices. To serve this segment is challenging but interesting as well, because today the spending power of youth segment has comparatively gone up. Moreover the young workforce at Primark will surely enjoy dealing with their age group customers, as it might require them lesser efforts to sell the idea to youth as compared to senior age group persons. The 'look good, pay less' proposition from Primark fits perfectly well with the youth segment. The brand identity being created by Primark amongst the youth helps in offering a valued

Data Collection and Analysis With a Real Teacher-Researcher Essay - 1

Data Collection and Analysis With a Real Teacher-Researcher - Essay Example The fourth observation was that, moving students’ seats helps reduce the number of redirections. The data shows a trend of reduced redirections; this is probably due to implementation of the steps suggested by Sienna from her observations. Increasing eye contact between the students and Ms. Steward, giving the students something to anticipate, and moving the students’ seats were some of the solutions to keeping them in check. Eye contact from Ms. Steward helped keep the students aware that someone is watching over them. Giving the students something to look forward to boosts their moods and keeps them in check as they wait. Moving students seats helps separate those who have become close to each other to avoid increased talks in between them. May’s graph was a student over time graph indicating a period of nine days. Referred to as the â€Å"five minute challenge,† It indicates the number of students that entered the class from lunch, sat down, copied their agenda into their notebooks, and were ready to learn in in 5 minutes or less. The number of students who could finish their tasks increased gradually from 11 on the first day to a maximum of 20 on the 8th day. This was probably due the task the students had to complete prior to the start of the class. The tasks helped to keep them on check. Based on the students’ response to the agenda timed challenge, May should create more tasks for them to complete in a short time every day. This will certainly keep them focused in class and avoid redirections at the start of the class (Hodge, 2010, pg.106). Anthony and Leah’s data indicates the time taken to complete four goals every day. The four goals were to write their complete agenda, answer the bell work question, put the pencil down, and then put their hand up to be checked. They recorded the time used to complete these goals for nine

Information systems management Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Information systems management - Assignment Example Social networking and web 2.0 technologies are key to implementation of brand creation and management in P&G. Blogs are considered effective and better means of communication since they attract more readership and comments. The company also uses Microsoft’s communication suite that integrates instant messaging, web browsing, video conferencing and live meeting calendar management as a collaborative communication and data transmission strategy. These methods enhance faster decision making and easier access to and retrieval of information (Stair & Reynolds, 2012). The previous means that were used in distributing information at P&G were not effective but rather time consuming and hectic. It was also time consuming to ensure all people got the information since it was all stored at one place. The current strategies are less time consuming and effective as multiple accesses to information stored at one place is made possible (Bocij et al., 2008). For an executive member to print and stick reports to a notebook for storage so much time is consumed and the means is not even effective enough for decision making. It’s also not a good way of record keeping since retrieval of information is made difficult hence delaying decision making. The new strategies employed, therefore, are so crucial in ensuring faster decision making throughout the company’s activities. The current electricity infrastructure in the United States differs so much from smart grills mainly because of technology adoption. Smart grills appreciate and apply technology so much in service delivery as opposed to the current infrastructure. This is evident in communicating with customers and integrating other service providers into the system (Stair & Reynolds, 2012). For instance ensuring that consumption is regulated and consumers are constantly informed of how much energy they use is a new strategy that is not availed in the previous infrastructure. It also integrates

Service concept Service concept profiling The SERVQUAL model Essay

Service concept Service concept profiling The SERVQUAL model - Essay Example Global economic developments have transformed traditional relationship between the customer’s clients and suppliers. Emergence of new technologies and communication as well as the establishment of open trading global regimes has resulted in wide customer choice, and creation of alternative supply that is more transparent. Business Enterprises should tailor their products to suit the needs of the customers due to the fact that technology has evolved leading to low cost dissemination of information and customer solutions (Lee, Lee and Yoo, 2000, p.218). These transformations have forced business enterprises to carry out evaluation of the value they present to their clients. The new business environment has also emphasized the need to capture the value for provision of services and new products and in the process ensuring that the need of the customers are adequately met. A well developed business model will ensure the growth of the business enterprise and the absence of a busine ss model will result in the failure of the business, and failed innovation. This aspect is clearly evident in the internet market due to the fact that revenue creation is more perplexing due to customer expectations of free services (Lee, Lee and Yoo, 2000, p.228). Service concept is fundamental in business management. Service concept provides an opportunity for both the client and the supplier to identify their expectation as well as what not to expect from a product or a service. Services that are clearly defined provides the customer with a clear understanding of what the service offers with inclusion of what each service does not offer , for example, service limitations, eligibility, how to make a request for a service, cost and how to get assistance. An elaborate service defines internal procedures that are relevant in the provision and support of the service. So as to conceptualize a service, five key questions must be answered. These include questions on service description ( the type of service and where it can be found), questions that deals with self service and help (how to use the service being provided or how to get assistance), questions that touch on pricing and service cost (what is the price of the service), and finally questions that deals with service support and service delivery. The concept of service ensures that there is an overall accountability in the process of ensuring delivery of services is in accordance to the management life cycle and agreed enterprise requirements. Service profiling concept in business provides data and articulates logic and other proves that illustrates how a business delivers and creates value for its clients. It also describes revenue, profit and costs architecture that is associated with the enterprise that delivers the stated value. Factors related to a good service concept design are interrelated and is fundamental to business strategists questions (how does business enterprise create a sustainable competit ive merit and realize supernormal profits). In summary, service profiling concept in business entails creation and delivery of value and the process of converting value payments into profits. So as to realize innovational profits, business entrepreneurs need to ensure excellence in

Is Google Making Us Stupid Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Is Google Making Us Stupid - Essay Example The article of Nicholas Carr, â€Å"Is Google making us stupid? What the internet is doing to our brains,† argues that the Internet and other technologies have changed the modern generation. It has made many people lazy and changed the way people perform their daily life activities. Carr is right when he argues that the Internet and social networking sites have changed the way people think. This is because having access to information faster through the use of the Internet has contributed to significant changes. For instance, many students nowadays use Internet for carrying out research studies. They no longer use their brain to find solutions to the issues, but rather use Google to find information faster; thus Google is making students lazy and stupid (Carr 341). Technology is making the society move towards a positive, direction, but too much dependent on technology is creating more harm than good. Carr views many changes the Internet is causing as a loss rather than a bene fit; thus he raises awareness on the impact that the Internet is creating in the contemporary society. He attempts to reveal the way Internet is changing the ways students are writing and learning in the current generation. Carr reveals the way skills of many people have been eroded thus he says, â€Å"am not thinking the way I used to think† (Carr 340). Therefore, these changes have contributed to poor concentration in reading books; thus spending much time on the Internet. Although the Internet has contributed to positive changes, over reliance on the Internet has changed the way the brains of students function; thus affecting cognitive memory of the Internet users. The Internet has changed the way students perform their work in school; hence, many of them have become lazy because they cannot read books for a long time. The age of globalization, which is contributed by the increased technology development, has created more harm than good. Many students no longer perform eff ectively in school because many of them spend much time in social networking sites. Students also do not read hard because of much time spent on the Internet (Carr 340). Carr further argues that the Internet has changed the brain of many individuals; thus contributing to varied changes. For instance, Carr notices that many students cannot read books for more than one hour, and this has led to poor performances in many schools. This means that the minds of students have nowadays changed in that one cannot read a book for more than three pages before turning into the Internet. This has become just like an addict because many students cannot spend their entire day without using technology for varied activities. For instance, the increased social disorders that have risen are contributed due to more time spend on social networking sites and the Internet. Additionally, Carr notices that many students have become lazy because over dependent on the Internet for varied activities. Many stud ents do not work hard by reading their books, but rather spend time in the Internet or social networking sites. Google is making many of them lazy and stupid because they depend on the Internet for carrying out their research or assignments. Students do not spend their time in the libraries reading printed books because they believe that, with Google, everything is possible. They use Google for carrying out research work because it is easier and saves time than searching books from the library categories. Although, this is crucial because Google directs them to the required material, but it is making many students become lazy. Wellmon (78) argues that Google search engine is making us stupid or smart; thus giving way to complex and productive questions. Thus, the time students spend in social networking sites than books have impacted performance of many students in their various learning institutions. Internet has contributed to the new form of writing and reading styles. Many stude nts spend much of their time interacting with

Global business Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2750 words

Global business - Essay Example Along with this, the level of sustainability of the organization also gets enhanced to a significant extent in the market among other rival players. Moreover, as sustainability is the most essential criterion of any organization, in this age of extreme rivalry, most of the organizations desire to recruit, experienced and talented leaders or managers. This is because; these leaders or managers of the organizations act as the catalyst in developing extremely creative and inventive products or services that might satisfy the needs and requirements of the customers. Along with this, the competitive position of the organization or the entrepreneur also gets improved in the entire market thereby amplifying its brand value and equity among others. As a result, the threat of the contenders also gets reduced thereby amplifying the level of dominancy and equity in the market in long run. Thus, it might be depicted that the generation of idea to develop inventive products or services is entirel y dependent over the mental capability and intelligence power of the leaders or managers. ... Other than this, a leader is an individual, who steps up in challenging situations so as to mitigate it in an effective way. Not only this, he is also responsible for presenting varied types of information and facts to all other employees and staffs so as to analyse their desires and wishes, prior implementing any policy or regulation (Von Stamm, 2008, pp. 389-490). Apart from this, leadership is also described as an ability to maintain a good interpersonal relationship among the employees of the organization thereby reducing the conflicts and clashes. Therefore, leadership might be described as an inherent quality that may not be taught or learned but might be enhanced through various situational changes and conditions. Hence, leadership style or leaders might be stated as one of the most essential requirements of the organizations operating in recent age, in order to tackle risky situations or challenging threats. Role of leadership in corporate organization In order to cope up wit h the changing needs and demands of the market, innovation is the most essential requirement. This is because; invention of varied types of products or services might prove effective for a corporate organization to enhance its dominance and reputation in the market among others. Along with this, the level of profit margin and equity of the organization might also get amplified thereby reducing the threat of substitute products. However, it might be possible, only if the organization or the corporate comprises of an enthusiastic and confident leader. This is because; presence of such type of a leader or leadership qualities might motivate and stimulate the employees or the followers of the organization to develop varied types of value-added products or services in order to cope up

Training Need Analysis and Evaluation of Training Effectiveness Essay Example for Free

Training Need Analysis and Evaluation of Training Effectiveness Essay To assess how the organizational objectives will be realized through the delivery of a staff training programme that will focus on improved and/or changed skills, knowledge and/or attitudes of those directly involved or affected by the ‘change’ †¢To understand the process and importance of measuring training effectiveness in the organization †¢To measure the expressed needs of training effectiveness at work place from the individual †¢To find out the obstacles in the proper utilization and increase the effectiveness of Training programs and try to suggest remedial measures wherever possible. To decide what specific training each employee needs and what will improve their job performance. To differentiate between the need for training and organizational issues. Performing a training gap or needs analysis involves comparing what a person knows with what they need to know in the context of their particular job functions. Performing a gap analysis helps to eliminate over and under training and in so doing increases training effectiveness and efficiency. Measuring Training Effectiveness will help the organization Have a well-structured measuring system in place which can help the organization determine where the problem lies. This will provide the organization with an idea of where it sits in terms of training system effectiveness and in giving it the structure the administration need to construct a roadmap for improvement. This project will help in finding out the obstacles in the proper utilization and increase the effectiveness of Training programs and try to suggest remedial measures wherever possible. BHEL has always been ahead with their innovating HR practices. Thrust to develop and nurture the participative culture in the Company has continued since long. Human Resource Development has always been the focus area in BHEL. Workshops have been conducted from time to time for Supervisors and Executives on Enhancing Organisational Effectiveness. The objective of the workshop was to bring about better understanding and appreciation of the issues being faced both by the Company and the employees. The Training system at BHEL has always been exemplary. During 2002-03, 40466 participants were exposed to different training programs in various training Centers at Units as well as at apex level in NOIDA. Besides, 3700 Act Apprentices and 1300 Technician Apprentices were also provided with training at BHEL’s Units, as part of fulfillment of its social obligation towards the society. Also, towards its ongoing efforts for higher customer satisfaction, around 1100 customers personnel were provided training inputs on its products at Training Centers in the Units. Thus an opportunity to study at BHEL will be both enlightening and enriching. An organization either Business or Industrial Enterprises, needs many factors for its growth, further development and for its very survival. The most important factors are Capital, Materials, Machineries and Human Resources as the success or failure of any organization depends on the effective combination of these factors. Managing all other factors are comparatively easier than managing Human Resources. The Human Resources are most important and need to be handled carefully. Since all the other factors are handled by the human resources, they have to be trained in a effective manner to utilize the resources at optimal level to get the desired output and thereby to reach the organization goals. The effective combination of all these factors results to way for success. Training is defined as learning that is provided in order to improve performance on the present job. A persons performance is improved by showing her how to master a new or established technology. The technology may be a piece of heavy machinery, a computer, a procedure for creating a product, or a method of providing a service. Oliver Sheldon says ‘No industry can rendered efficient so long as the fact remains unrecognized that the in principally human – not a mass of machines and technical process but a body of men. If manpower is properly utilized it causes the industry to run at its maximum optimization getting results and also work for as an climax for industrial and group satisfaction in the relation to the work formed. Competitive advantage is therefore depend on the knowledge and skill possessed by employee more than the finance or market structure by organization. The employee training not only serves the purpose to develop their employers but also safe guard organizational objectives of survival and success through competitive advantages. The training function now popularly called as Human Resource In recent years, the scope of Training and Development has broadened from simply providing training programs to facilitating learning throughout the organization in a wide variety of ways. There is increasing recognition that employees can and should learn continuously, and that they can learn from experience and from each other as well as from formally structured training programs. Nevertheless, formal training is still essential for most organizations or teach them how to perform in their initial assignment, to improve the current performance of employees who may not be working as effectively as desired, to prepare employees for future promotions and increased responsibilities. The Computer Application Training and New Employee Training are most popular training topics. Various Management and supervisory skills such as leadership, performance appraisal, interviewing, and problem solving were also commonly taught. Many organization provide ‘Train-the trainer’ courses for superiors or peers who will in turn provide on-the-job training to others. Besides being one of the most important HRM functions, Training and Development is also one of the most expensive. Meaning and Definition: After an employee is selected, placed and introduced, he or she needs to be provided with training facilities. The training is the act of increasing the knowledge and skill of an employee for doing the particular job. Training is a short term educational process and utilizing systematic and organized procedure by which an employee is learned the technical knowledge. Definition: Staimez: defines ‘Training is a short term process utilizing a systematic and organized procedure by which non-managerial personnel to learn technical knowledge and skill† Mamoria: defines â€Å"Development covers not only the activities which improve job performance, but also those which b ring about growth of personality, helps individual in the process towards maturity and actualization of this potential capacities so that they become not only good employees but also both good men and women. S. P. Robbins: Defines â€Å"Training is a learning process which seeks a relatively permanent change in behavior that occurs as a result of experience. Dale Yoder: Defines â€Å"It is that deals with the effective control and use of manpower as a distinguished from other source of man power† Training is part of Human Resource Development. It is concerned with concerned with training, development, and education. Training has been defined as an organized learning experience, conducted in a definite time period, to increase the possibility of improving job performance and growth. Organized means that it is conducted in a systematic way. Although learning can be incidental, training is concerned with the worker learning clear and concise standards of performance or objectives. Training is the acquisition of technology which permits employees to perform their present job to standards. It improves human performance on the job the employee is presently doing or is being hired to do. Also, it is given when new technology in introduced into the workplace. Principle of Training: 1. Training Plan: This must be well planned, prescribed and ably executed effective implementation depends to great extend on planning. Organizational objectives: T D program must meet objectives of the Organization 3. Equity and fairness: T and D program must enjoy equal opportunity to drive benefit out of such training and must have equal chance to undergo such training. 4. Application specification: Training content is balanced between theory and practical. It must be ‘Application specification’/ 5. Upgrading information: T and D program is continuous reviewed at periodic interval as order to make them updated in terms of knowledge and skill. 6. Top Management support: Top management support is essential to make Training and Development effective. 7. Centralization: For economy of effective uniformity and efficiency, centralization of training department is found more common and useful. 8. Motivation – Training and Development have motivation aspects like better career opportunity, individuals skill development etc. , Importance of training in recent years: Recent changes in the environment of business have made the Training and Development function even more important in helping organization maintain competitiveness and prepare for the future. Technological innovations and the pressure of global competition have changed the ways organizations operate and the skills that their employee need. The tight labor market has increased the importance of training in several ways. First higher employee turnover means that more new employees need training. Second, it has been suggested that frequent and relevant development experiences are an effective way to gain employee loyalty and enhance retention of top-quality staff. Need for Training: Training must be tailored to fit the organization’s strategy and structure. It is seen as pivotal in implementing organization-wide culture-change efforts, such as developing a commitment to customer service, adopting total quality management, or making a transition to self-directed work teams. Pace-setting Human Resource Development departments have moved from simply providing training on demand to solving organizational problems. Trainers see themselves as internal consultants or performance improvement specialists rather than just instructional designers or classroom presenters. Training is only one of the remedies that may be applied by the new breed of Human Resource Development practitioners. In an age of network organizations, alliances, and long-term relationships with just-in-time suppliers, leading companies are finding that they need to train people other than their own employees. Some organization offer quality training to their suppliers to ensure the quality of critical inputs. Organisations with a strong focus on customer service may provide training for purchasers to their product.

Nike’s Marketing Model Essay Example for Free

Nike’s Marketing Model Essay Price †¢Nike’s pricing is designed to be competitive to the other fashion shoe retailers. The pricing is based on the basis of premium segment as target customers. Nike as a brand commands high premiums. Nike’s pricing strategy makes use of vertical integration in pricing wherein they own participants at differing channel levels or take part in more than one channel level operations. This can control costs and influence product pricing. †¢The company has designed its pricing structure in a way to make it competitive to other shoe sellers. †¢The price of the products is variable depending on the type and the size for example a comfortable and good pair of shoes would cost

Matters Of National Interests And Security Politics Essay

Matters Of National Interests And Security Politics Essay In a very generic sense, national interests are that which is deemed by a particular state to be a . . . desirable goal. The attainment of this goal is something that the identifying state believes will have a positive impact on itself. Realization of the interest could enhance the political, economic, security, environmental, and/or moral well-being of a populace and the state or national enterprise to which they belong.  [2]  This holds true within the territory of the state, as well as in any external relations that the state may undertake outside of the administrative control of that state.  [3]   Interests serve as the foundation and guiding direction for the formulation of policy. For a nation-state, there is more often than not a direct correlation between the nations interests and foreign policy. In most cases, statesmen think and act in terms of interest.  [4]  Those interests believed to be the most significant for the attainment of a policy objective (the states wants and needs)  [5]  will earn the greatest amount of emphasis during the policy formulation process. They should be designed to tell the policymaker why and how much he should care about an issue. Interests help determine what kind and how much attention should be given to both challenges or threats and opportunities. They also assist the policymaker in identifying key issues during the policy formulation process. Some political scientists, like Hans Morgenthau, believe that national interests are permanent features of the international system. Regardless of what government is in power, the interests of a nation-state remain fixed components of the policymaking process. They are unaffected by the circumstances of time and place.  [6]   Morgenthau, himself, indicates that the key concept of interest is not to be defined with a meaning that is fixed once and for all.  [7]  Morgenthau believed the generic concept of interest was unchanging in terms of its importance to the international system. But this did not mean that individual interests could not be adjusted or newly created in order to take into account changes in the international system. Other theorists have argued that interests are likely to be a diverse, pluralistic set of subjective preferences that change periodically, both in response to the domestic political process itself and in response to shifts in the international environment. The national interest therefore is more likely to be what the policymakers say it is at any particular time.  [8]  The underlying three basic interests are:- Security: Protection of the people (both home and abroad), territory, and institutions of the State against potential foreign dangers.  [9]  This has always included defense of the homeland. Domestically, it also includes protection of critical infrastructure such as energy, banking and finance, telecommunications, transportation, water systems, and cyber networks.  [10]   Economic Well-Being: Promotion of international trade and investment, including protection of a States private economic interests in foreign countries.  [11]   Democratic Values: Until the 20th century, this core interest was confined to ensuring that the domestic democratic process and associated values framed the traditional tenets of life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness. Some states may include the promotion of democracy and human rights abroad.  [12]   Just as the development of national interests is complex, so is the actual application of interests in the policy and strategy formulation process. The importance of national interests to the process is significant, as described by Lord Palmerston, the British foreign minister in 1856: When people ask me . . . for what is called a policy, the only answer is that we mean to do what may seem to be best, upon each occasion as it arises, making the interests of our country ones guiding principle.  [13]   The policy framer participating in the development of interests must take the following issues into account: How flexible can the interest of the moment be in relation to the states core interests of the period? Must the interest be based on either realism or morality, or rather; can it be some combination of the two? Where does the interest fit in terms of how it is to be categorized with what degree of intensity? Perhaps the most complicating factor that the policy framer must take into account will be the influence of domestic politics on the interest formulation process. The concept that resource allocation by type and quantity will be impacted by the identification of the interest designed to guide a policy creates a critical linkage between the two. The connection is key because, in a democracy, it is the government of a state actor that will have to sustain the investment of resources required to attain the interest. Interests with greater fidelity and less ambiguity are easier for governments and populations to support because they have a clearer idea of why it is they are being asked to do something, like allocate money or military forces.  [14]  At the same time, such a detailed understanding could lead to a lack of support on the part of either the government, the people, or parts thereof, if the interest is assessed to be too low on the scale of intensity. If they are to develop relevant and executable 21st century interests, a most important understanding for those participating in the interest development process must be that they are endowed with a degree of flexibility allowing them to discern the limits of domestic politics in terms of what types of interests are likely to be supportable. This must entail the provision of the maximum amount of data available for the development and resulting identification of the interests at hand. The greater the fidelity and degree of consensus on categorisation and level of intensity, the greater the possibility that the public will support actions to protect or advance the interest. DEFINITIONS At this juncture it would be worthwhile to look at some definitions, to get a complete perspective in to national interests,power and security. National interests The national interest, often referred to by the French term raison dÉtat, is a countrys goals and ambitions whether economic, military, or cultural. The notion is an important one in international relations where pursuit of the national interest is the foundation of the realist school. It has 5 major dimensions namely; Geo Political, Economic, Military, Socio-cultural, and Science Technology. National Interests therefore stem from the evolving National goals in each of these dimensions and is also a reflection of the relative National Strengths with regard to these dimensions. POWER In the context of international relations and diplomacy, power (sometimes clarified as international power, national power, or state power) is the ability of one state to influence or control other states. States with this ability are called powers, NATIONAL STRATEGY The art and science of developing, applying, and coordinating the instruments of national power (diplomatic, economic, military, and informational) to achieve objectives that contribute to national security. Also called national strategy or grand strategy. NATIONAL SECURITY 1. National security is the requirement to maintain the survival of the nation-state through the use of economic, military and political power and the exercise of diplomacy. 2. National security can be defined as a collective term encompassing both national defence and foreign relations.  [15]  In general, it is the study of the security problems faced by [actors], of the policies and programs by which these problems are addressed, and also of the government processes through which the policies and programs are decided upon and carried out.  [16]  It relates both externally and internally to the actor-the foreign and domestic components of national security. 3. In the context of USA it is a collective term encompassing both national defense and foreign relations of the United States. Specifically, the condition provided by: (a) a military or defense advantage over any foreign nation or group of nations; (b) a favorable foreign relations position; or (c) a defense posture capable of successfully resisting hostile or destructive action from within or without, overt or covert. 4. National security is thus a multi-dimensional view and response towards protecting National Interests against internal and external threats. It is dynamic and evolving as a derivative of National Interests which in itself is an evolving derivative of National Strength. It Underpins and guarantees the pursuit of National Objectives in a competing international arena. Further any issue that has the potential to directly impact the pursuit of National Goals can be classified as an area of National Interest, and it can thus be brought under the ambit of national security. ECONOMIC POWER Modern conflict, from conventional warfare to diplomatic disputes, has increasingly involved economics in some form. Nations use economic tools to pursue objectives, seek economic resources as national goals, or are affected by economic events that influence their national security. Both state and non-state actors use economic power to wage war and to influence events regionally or globally. Economic considerations range from simple access to resources like water or raw materials through transforming resources into finished products or services to providing financial resources. The ability to gather, transform, and use resources is a key component to national security. Many human activities, including those involving national security, can be either severely limited or dramatically enhanced by economic factors. Military operations and other national security actions frequently depend on the results of economic capability. Without the capacity to produce, finance, or support key natio nal security activities, a nation would have a limited ability to protect its domestic and international interests. Economic power has spread widely and gained importance in recent years. Globalisation, the reliance on economics, and the diffusion of economic power from a few industrial states to many developing ones has radically changed the world. Global economic success has also conferred power on a large group of sovereign governments and even corporations. The threat or actual action by a government, organization, or cartel can create enormous economic impact. Markets are extremely sensitive to news that would affect potential financial or economic activity. Oil prices can rise rapidly if tensions increase in the Persian Gulf or if a natural disaster occurs. Single events with little obvious international significance could ignite a sell off by investors in overseas and domestic stock markets. Global communications can spread panic and exacerbate the condition. The changing environment has altered the emphasis on national elements of power so that military power is not necessarily the primary coercive tool in international relations, and economic power has gained increased importance  [17]  . During the age of total war that spanned World Wars I and II, military power was the coin of the realm in foreign affairs. Economic power played a role in those wars, but the fight for national survival overrode the impact of domestic and international macroeconomic stability or growth. Economics served primarily as a provider of resources to the military element of power. In an era of increased consumer demand, technological growth, changes in society, and the evolving nature of conflict, the importance of economic considerations rose. During the Cold War, national survival was still at stake, but even then economic considerations became just as important as nuclear parity with the Soviet Union. President Dwight D. Eisenhower warned of military ex penditures impeding future economic growth the net result of which would degrade security for the nation. Nuclear sufficiency became acceptable rather than superiority with the associated costly numbers of intercontinental ballistic missiles, strategic bombers, and submarines. Guns versus butter questions also arose as the challenges of an undeclared Cold War against Moscow pitted social spending against defence resources. Today, economic issues play a pivotal role in conflict. Advanced technology, contractors on the battlefield, volunteer militaries (that tend to be more expensive than conscript armies), reconstruction of battle ravaged nations, and other considerations make war and conflict expensive. Countries do not have inexhaustible resources to conduct long wars even if there is a direct and desperate threat to national survival. Questions of national treasury, consumer demand, labour constraints, finance, and other economic considerations can sway public sentiment against a conflict. If one nation wages war or takes other actions to isolate another state, investors around the world become nervous. Stock and commodity markets could affect financial conditions and create unforeseen reactions. These reactions may create adverse conditions that could force a change in strategy by the nation trying to influence a rivals behavior  [18]  . As economic issues affect national security capabilities and activities, so might efforts that involve national security create global economic impacts. War or political disruption in an oil producing region will initiate tremors in the international energy sector. Although a nation might not be directly affected by the initial problem, the populace can suffer from increased prices from petroleum products that could result in greater unemployment, inflation, credit issues, and foreign exchange problems. Demands for added military expenditures could translate to increased taxes that discourage consumer spending and business investment or reductions in other governmental activities that can directly shape the economic landscape. Competition for limited resources to meet national security policy objectives could also hamper private or other governmental activities. Nations can increase borrowing, raise taxes, spend surpluses, confiscate resources, or monetize debt. All of these options have unique economic effects on a nation. Economics is an element of national power. Normally, one of a nations key national interests is maintaining a viable economy to ensure a certain standard of living for its citizenry. States can use economic power to deter, compel, coerce, fight, and even rebuild a former opponent to meet a particular need. Economics becomes a vital component of the ends, ways, and means of security. Perhaps uniquely among the traditional elements of national power, economics might be any of the three aspects of strategy-the objective of a nations strategy might be economic; economics might provide the means to achieve the end; or a nation might pursue its ends using economics as the primary way to exert power. Whether economics is a way or a means to achieve a national interest or if it is a cause or motivation to take an action, national leaders must pay attention to this increasingly significant security factor. ECONOMICS AND NATIONAL INTEREST States and non-state actors have historically fought over economic issues. Wars about open access to resources, trade routes, competition, profit, and other economic issues are common in military and diplomatic history. A keen competition for resources among governments, individuals, corporations, and other actors has created a complex web of economic dependencies and rivalries that was not as important in the past. Similarly, economic conditions can create an environment that fosters demands for change that could create a civil war, a fight for access to markets or resources, or other forms of economic competition. Countries with weak or failing economies may resort to actions that they might not have considered had their economies been stronger. One specific area which deserves a brief discussion is oil as a cause or objective of war. Reliable access to oil at reasonable rates is a vital national security interest for every developed and many of the more developing nations. Governments or international organizations that control oil production or pricing can effectively disrupt global economic conditions-whether purposefully or accidentally. A monopoly or oligopoly that controls a strategic asset, capability, or raw material has great potential to disrupt economies and create political instability, although few commodities have the same potential impact as oil. Major perceived or actual disruptions in the oil market are serious events that easily can trigger hostile responses from concerned governments. Today, oil is the best example of a resource that is both scarce and vital; however, other resources like water are also likely sources of conflict. We can expect economic issues-particularly access to raw materials and resou rces-to remain one of the significant objectives of international relations and causes of conflict. Economic intervention in or withdrawal from the economy of a foreign nation-as opposed to supporting its debt-can have tremendous impact on the financial well being of a region or country. Governments do not usually participate directly in the economy of another nation. However, direct participation in the economy of another nation through private companies is widespread. Depending on the business and political climate of firms home state, such participation may provide some degree of power for that home state  [19]  . Regardless of the degree of external governmental control, decisions by private firms and multinational corporations to invest or do business in a country can influence national policies. Such decisions are independent and can be contrary to a host nations interests. In an age of globalized financial markets, almost any corporation, organization, or individual can transfer capital into a country or take it out. This transfer generally can occur by using national or international stock, bond, commodity markets, or through direct investment into business ventures. Rapid inflow of capital can provide a needed boast to growth while rapid outflow can sink a nation into recession. Governments can use their economic power through other means. For example, rather than lending money by bond purchases, they can provide direct support to another nation through a variety of programs that essentially provide money or services. Foreign aid, loan guarantees, technical aid and services, and other assistance can provide a number of flexible tools to support national interests. The transfer of wealth from developed to developing countries that sell raw materials or manufacture low-cost products can create economic problems. Governments worried about the outflow of capital, goods, services, industries, and jobs might erect barriers to restrict or stop trade. Such actions rarely go unchallenged, and a counter tariff barrier or legal challenge is a likely response. Conversely, governments willing to accept what are hopefully temporary trade imbalances for potential future benefits may allow the transfer of wealth and even industries and jobs to continue. Such is the political and economic theory behind the whole free trade movement-the North Atlantic Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) being a visible example. Transfer of key technologies, processes, equipment, or skills can also enable foreign governments and private firms-granting in some cases access to capabilities that would have taken years and many resources to acquire independently. Economic power normally involves the trade of finished goods or raw materials. Few countries can claim to produce all of the goods and services that their citizens use. Many nations require energy imports to subsist. Conversely, nations that may have oil, natural gas, or other energy sources might need food imports or other foreign services like skilled labour. Nations can work within international trade agreements, or they may take unilateral action to expand or restrict trade. A country might try to limit trade to hurt a rival. Economic power could also prevent or limit actions taken by a rival. Suppose a country requires a scarce raw material. If an adversary has sufficient funds, influence, or credit, it could purchase and withhold that raw material from its foe. The nation could also coerce sellers to prevent sale of that raw material to the opponent. States could put pressure indirectly on an opponents allies to force a nation to take certain actions. After the 1973 Yom Kippur War, Arab oil-producing countries refused to sell oil to the United States and other nations that supported Israel. This embargo boosted oil prices and shifted international power from the developed nations to ones that relied primarily on oil extraction. Political and economic power was redistributed when these actions were combined with the nationalization of private, foreign-owned petroleum companies in these oil exporting nations.  [20]   THE PRIVATE SECTOR AS A STRATEGIC TOOL Although not generally controlled by governments, disregarding currency manipulations designed to offset them, commercial balance of payments are another form of debt that can have foreign policy implications. Fears of a pending financial disaster could cause lenders to pull capital out of the market and further exacerbate the situation. Unfortunately, globalized communications can now spread fears among global investors almost instantaneously. The result is that economic issues that might have been localized events only decades ago can now turn into global issues. Additionally, since private investors may act contrary to government desires, governmental and even international efforts to stem economic crises may be ineffective. Some nations fear excessive foreign investment due to a perceived influence or concern over precipitous withdrawal; others accept the risk and welcome foreign investment as a reasonably available source of funds. Although some nations find these actions helpful, critics argue that this capability can also be used to stifle competition, protect national interests, or create geopolitical troublemaking.  [21]  Foreign funds do provide a needed economic boast, but t hey can also disappear quickly should confidence fail Multinational corporations and firms typically have the resources and ability to get access to once closed markets. Governments might offer subsidies or grant special benefits to attract business to their country. Once established, the multinational corporation could exert a powerful influence on the government since its affairs affect the nations economy. Similarly, in highly contested markets, a multinational corporation could offer restricted technologies, move production of key subcomponents, offer bribes, expand production beyond the initial plan, or provide other incentives to gain access to the market. Companies can lobby their home countrys government (assuming it favours the move into the other nations market) for help lifting trade restrictions or access to technology or influencing the host nations foreign policy. In the most basic sense, economic power is an entitys ability to acquire, produce, and use raw materials, goods, and services. A nation cannot engage in conflict over an extended period without an adjustment to its economy. In many cases, countries must devote goods or services to prepare for or fight a war or even to conduct other activities that affect the national interest. Humanitarian aid, defence expenditures, diplomacy, alliance membership, and other vital actions depend on a countrys ability to raise and spend tax revenues, borrow funds, use surpluses, or finance these measures. Economic power allows players to conduct actions by providing the personnel, equipment, operating materials, infrastructure, and short or long term sustainment of that capability Governments purchase commodities and equipment like a business, obtain labour (military, government civilian, and contractor), maintain physical infrastructure, conduct research and development, and in some cases also produce unique goods and services peculiar to national security. Resource decisions mold the creation of force structure to include investments in weapons, recruitment and retention of military and civilian personnel, decisions to fund military or non-military government programs, and a host of other concerns that affect national security policy. Further, economic conditions, once the exclusive concern of financial institutions, investors, and businesses, now affect military decisions that range from recruitment to government borrowing that directly influences a powers ability to provide military capability. Arms sales, transfers of key military technologies or technologies related to weapons of mass destruction, contracting for goods and services by individuals and firms, and other economic activities can influence the national security environment. Nations that have sufficient resources can upgrade their military forces with more and better capabilities. Military forces that lack personnel or equipment could rely on contracted services or purchase advanced weaponry from other nations. If the state has limited forces, it can change the composition of its military forces by hiring specialized services that would have taken years to develop or that they only need for a limited time. Contractors on the battlefield are not new phenomena. The U.S. Government has used contractors in several wars. Other nations have hired military pilots and aircraft, logistics, and combat forces to expand and enhance their limited capabilities. Today, governments can lease satellite communications, photographic imagery, multi-spectral analysis, and navigational systems that were once the province of superpowers that had exclusive use of space systems. Individuals, firms, and governments can use these functions-for a price. This capability can change a balance of power at critical times during a conflict. Oil profits have allowed the Russian government to finance a larger military budget that has given Moscow the ability to build a new intercontinental ballistic missile, aircraft, and other weapons to revitalize its national security and foreign policies. Other countries, like Iran and Venezuela, also fuel their defense and security programs by oil sales. Nations building advanced technology consumer goods like information systems could use similar technologies to improve their military forces. While national leaders consider and adapt economics as an element of national power, these same leaders are also affected by economic events that may limit their policies options. Economic considerations can have very influential impacts on the conduct of military operations and diplomatic actions. Globalisation has allowed nations to conduct business with allies, former enemies, and potential rivals. New relationships between citizens and governments that highlight cost reductions, profits, and long range business activities can impact national security measures in a host of ways. Current economic conditions also have a large impact on military operations. Inflation contributes to reduced purchasing power by a government. This includes activities from purchasing fuel, paying for contracted work, demands for greater pay for military and civilian workers, and other acquisition activities  [22]  . Similarly, a recession-a sustained downturn in economic activities-reduces tax revenues and encourages moves by politicians to stimulate the economy or support the unemployed or struggling citizens. These policies can significantly reduce the amount of defence spending for a nation. However, some of these conditions might provide relief to the government. Unemployment may ease recruitment and retention problems in the military. Increased competition for fewer government contracts might reduce the cost of operations. Tools to fight economic problems may also create unforeseen issues. A central bank could raise or lower interest rates. These actions can affect the ava ilability of investors to purchase government debt and the cost of borrowing for contractors to build the latest fighter aircraft. OTHER ECONOMIC SECURITY CONSIDERATIONS Expanding trade can provide several benefits to nations. It can create better efficiencies in production by seeking the lowest cost, most effective producers. This situation could lead to greater economic growth and improved standards of living around the world. However, not all nations find an economic niche that allows economic growth. Cheaper outsourced services and imported goods may destroy domestic industries. Large numbers of unemployed workers could create domestic problems for a government. Further, reliance on foreign imports could impoverish the state and complicate its financial and credit situation. If nations rely on foreign goods, then any problem that hinders trade could cause issues globally. A natural disaster, potential conflict, trade dispute, or other problem could restrict the flow of needed products. ECONOMICS AND FUTURE NATIONAL SECURITY ISSUES In the future, security conflict among nations may change from predominately military contests to ones primarily featuring other elements of national power. That option is also open to non-state a

banks :: essays research papers

If much of contemporary literary theory emphasizes the cultural production of class, race, and gender in American fiction, contemporary fiction that utilizes the resources of narrative minimalism to explore issues of cultural division - fiction by such writers as Raymond Carver, Toni Morrison, Susan Minot, and Russell Banks - increasingly provides the context for critical debate. The refusal to elaborate plot or to use plot to suggest a narrator who controls interpretation, becomes itself a strategy that allows the reader to observe clearly the boundaries between the story's minimal plot and the way the socially produced narratives invoked by the story enforce cultural division. If we conceive of narrative as the establishment, for the reader, of a network of expectations within a frame of contingency, then perhaps no expectation is more fundamental than that of intelligible action@ the progression of story through chronological time, which we commonly refer to as plot. In a world w here the possibilities of plot express unattainable desires on the part of a narrative's characters, however, the reader's desire for a resolution of plot into meaning is thwarted, and the resultant anxiety the reader feels underscores his or her complicity with the frustrations and incoherencies of the characters, lives. These incoherencies resist sentimental assimilation into the reader's aesthetic imagination. The resultant daydreams and wish-fulfilling fantasies display, as Fredric Jameson argues, the otherwise inconceivable link between history and desire (182). Russell Banks's Black Man and White Woman in Dark Green Rowboat" presents precisely such an evasive narrative, one whose very evasion establishes a dialogic relationship between the reader and a cast of characters whose lives display the wreckage of the larger cultural narratives that marginalize them. In effect, Banks's minimalism accentuates the missing cultural narratives that have written the characters into th e margins. "Black Man and White Woman" does, of course, present things that happen. The story opens with an apparently random variety of people who live in a trailerpark commencing their days. The reader is not immediately aware that the black man and the white woman are the focus of the story. They gradually emerge from the narrative background, and the story follows them as they row onto the lake, converse laconically, and row home. The sense of nothing happening is created in the context of their desire, both their physical desire for each other and their desire to construct plots that might provide a meaningful structure to their lives.

Technical Documentation :: Computer Science

Technical Documentation The software that will be used for The Castletown High School System will be Microsoft Excel. This is a spreadsheet program that allows the user to carryout calculation and functions by using formulas. The machine should have a printer attached to it so that the users are able to print their work when they are done. The users of the system do not need to be overly good with computers but they do need a basic knowledge of how the system operates. The system has been designed to help those users who are not overly good with computers. This system should be opened by an icon on the desktop this will make it easier and quicker for the users to access. Each of the buttons included in the homepage has a macro attached to it which performs a specific task: Enter Results: This button takes you to a screen were you select which class you would like to enter results for when you chose the class you are then taken to the results entry form where you can enter the results for each pupil for your specific subject. Streaming List: This button also takes you to a page that asks you which class you would like to stream when you have chosen this you will be brought to the streaming list were you can stream that class but also compare the male and female results in a graph. Pupil Report: This button allows you to create a pupil report when you click this button you will go again to the class selection. When you chose the class you must then chose which of the pupils you wish to do a report on when you do this you will be brought to the report sheet were all the pupils details including grades will already be entered. Lookup(Grade,GradeLookupTable) This formula is used to work out the grade for the pupils. This is done by the formula checking the percentages against a table. ROUND(Mark/Max_Mark)*100 When the Mark and the Max Mark have been entered by the user the above formula will automatically work out the percentage. This button when pressed will bring the user back out of the Data Entry Form back to the main menu. Data Validation This is the error message that appears if the user inputs a number that is greater than the max mark. This is the basic layout of my report. Text Box: When the report is opened the information for Aine Boyle is automatically taken from the database and displayed in the streaming list, so the user only has to fill in there comment manually.

Investigate the effect of temperature on the rate of reaction :: GCSE Chemistry Coursework Investigation

To investigate the effect of temperature on the rate of reaction Background Information: Chemical reactions take place all the time at many different rates, some are incredibly fast like an explosion-where you get no time to see what's happening or like rusting which could take years before the iron is completely rusted. The rate of reaction is extremely important because you need to know how long before the end of the session or you may not get results in time. In living organisms it's vital that all the chemical reactions take place at the rates which supply the cells with the things they need exactly when they need them. Reaction rates are also important in the chemical industry as in any industrial process the ultimate purpose is to make money by producing useful products. In the chemical industry this means it's important to make as much of the desired product as cheaply as possible which means that the rate of reaction must be fast enough to make as much of the product as quickly as possible without risking overheating or explosions and without costing too much! How money hungry are we eh? Successful chemistry, whether microscopic or at a chemical plant, depends on controlling the rate of the ongoing reactions. In order to understand what affects the rate of chemical reactions and how we can control them we need to measure the rate of the reaction. The two ways to do this are measuring how quickly the reactants are used up or we can observe how quickly products are formed. Once we have a measurement for the reaction under one set of conditions, we can change them and make comparisons of the changing reaction rate under different conditions. There are 3 ways to measure the rate of reaction. We can measure a change in mass, if the reaction involves a gas being given off. The mass disappearing can easily be measured and recorded over a period of time. Another way to see is by measuring the rate of precipitation. When an insoluble solid forms as a solid in solution, the solution will gradually become more and more opaque. Paper with a mark on it can be used and the time taken for the mark to become invisible can be recorded. Another way to measure the precipitation rate is to use a light meter and data logger to record the amount of light transmitted. Finally, the last way is to measure the volume of gas given off; using a syringe but this can only be used when a gas is given off. The rate of reaction depends on four things: temperature increases the

What Ethics of Care in Nursing Means to Me

My definition of Ethic of Care is caring for individuals equally throughout all cultural backgrounds while using a precise fair code of ethics. It is extremely pertinent that ethic of care be implemented into nursing care in order for this to happen we must first understand the meaning of ethics. Ethics is the ideal actions of right and wrong behavior. With that said Ethic of Care should be looked at as a standard of nursing that must be met. When I become a nurse I will implement ethic of care in various ways.When I am assigned a patient I will be sure that their comfort level is maximized given the situation and most importantly I will communicate in my verbal and no-verbal behavior that the patient is of high importance. I will let the patient know that I will do any and everything in my power to address their situation as unique and in the most caring and respectable manor. Like theorist Leineger, I think that it is important to consider culture when developing a plan of care for the patient. A successful nurse does not address all patients an all cultures the same.By knowing and staying on top of the most recent research regarding cultural care the nurse increases the chances of a patient having a positive experience as opposed to a negative experience at that specific facility. Another theorist, Watson, demonstrates that care is the single most important component of nursing and everything else revolves around it. As a nurse I plan to use Ethic of Care as the major factor around nursing and use that as the foundation and move forward from there. Without the implementation of Ethic of Care you do not have a â€Å"nurse† looking at it from the ideal perspective.

Communicative Language Teaching Essay

communicatory wording t apieceingThe coach of this unit To make you conceptualise or so communicatory apostrophize to educational act wrangles To analyse the innovation of communicatory competency To reflect upon the communicatory instruct techniquesWhat do you guide to do in this unit? Warming up banters foreplay knowledge Self-assessment questions (SAQS) exploratory t shoots corporate caperWarming up intelligence 0Warm up the plan of a communicatory pip (situation, in which it is directed to surpass spontaneously and/or through with(predicate) write in influence to procure a certain last). bring off a mind map of the nonion listing most(prenominal) true communicatory situations in your own real beacommunicatory situationsInput cultivation 1The mode towards communicative educationWarming-up news 1.1Rate in effect of wideness the items that the savants need in arrange to mortify the lecture to communicatively ( more tha n than angiotensin converting enzyme item jackpot get 1 rank) Items Rating wording Grammar Pronunciation puzzle of typical situations aim stopping point Skills in disquisition Skills in penning Skills in reading Skills in seeing Non- literal mover of chat (gestures etc) companionship of how to deal with veracious deal eff of qualification finalitys in communicative situations Experience in playacting a consumption Experience in conundrum-solving Experience in playing communicative bizs Pre- conversation systemsThe focalisationsing towards communicative education has been a long and contr everyplacesial sensation with advances and set backs. The emphasis of concern was bit by bit shifting from the nomenclature as a systematic code to the actors line as a means of confabulation with the explore for an effective regularity of control and setting of the disciples some hotshotality. (The digest of program line parlia mentary procedures in this module is based on Richards, J., and Th. Rogers.1995. risees and Methods in delivery T severallying. loving cup).Grammar version (H.Olendorf) or Prussian order included critical compend of grammar rules, translating clock times and textual matterbooks into and out of the score actors line, memorizing rules and compositionipulating morphology and syntax, reading and writing. need system (M.Berlitz) hike the call of abroad nomenclature in the schoolroom. schoolroom educational action mechanism was conducted in the target diction just now. statement touch on was broadly based on imitation and memorization. spontaneous draw near or situational phraseology t all(prenominal)ing (Palmer, H. 1940. The article of faith of oral English. Longman) was based on selection and organization of the situations. Situations were stand upd with the commit of concrete things and pictures. They were used to introduce the impudentlyfangledly grammar constructions.audio-lingual order (Fries, Ch. 1945. Teaching and accomplishment English as a unlike address. University of Michigan Press) applied the principles of structural linguistics to diction training. Pattern practice became a basic classroom technique. Audio-lingual manner acting was the conclave of structural linguistic surmisal and fundamentals of behaviorism (stimulus, solvent, reinforcement).The infixed Approach (Krashen, S.1981. reciprocal ohm quarrel attainment and Second oral converse training. OUP) put emphasis on the vulnerability to speech communication (comprehensible input) quite than full-dress exercises. The fol offseting hypotheses were put into the nominateation of the indwelling Approach the acquisition/ submit surmise ( nevertheless natural-like acquisition corporation result in mastering the language magical spell intimacy military services getting the noesis about the language), the varan guess (explicit fami liarity has hardly whizz function, that of monitoring correctness of the utterance), the natural order hypothesis (the acquisition of grammar structures proceeds in a predictable order), the input hypothesis (the relationship surrounded by the input and language acquisition faces that pupils need comprehensible input), the affective filter hypothesis ( learners with high want, self-confidence, low solicitude generally do break down in language acquisition).SAQ 1.1Match the passing(a) methods of instruction with their essential features Method Features Grammar-translation method Imitation localise method Memorizing rules Oral approachMotivating learners Audio-lingual method Use of situations Natural approach Memorizing patterns compassionateitarian approachWarming-up discussion 1.1Comment on the following revelation of a get a lineerif a student really kit and boodle hard, and yet on that point is a attempt of infection of this student failing a test, although he or she has studied intensively for it, t here(predicate)fore I cheat. I crawfish a pen that has the same color ink as the student used to frame the test and I correct nigh of the mis final payments so that the student does not rule and I erect s likewisel a positive mark. And then I follow this up with a lot of judgement and decl ar (Puchta, H. 1999. Learners belief, identity and success. IATEFL 1999. Edinburgh Conference Selections. P. 71-72) humanitarian approach emerged as a solution to the behaviorist approach to training with the frozen teachers control all over the learners behavior. The concern of human-centred tendencies was to enhance passels self-actualization and their role in en give way their own lives (Kelly, Maslow, Rogers cited in Roth. I. 1994. Introduction to psychology. record 1. The Open University. P. 419). humane approach to language training emphasized the value of maturation solid learners personality, assimilation of an case- by-case in a chemical group, yeasty activities with unison, machinations etc. It was further positive in community language educational activity. The method was based on counseling techniques (Curran, C. 1976. Counseling- information A all in all Person Model for Education. N.Y.) In lay terms, counseling is giving support to an otherwise person. Thismethod was described as humanistic with self-actualization and secured self-esteem of the learners.The priorities of the method were to sprout learners relationships in the group, to guarantee in learners the speck of security and belonging to the group as well as asserting atomic number 53s personal identity. Learner self-sufficiency became a new and oft discussed design. emotive encyclopedism and learner perplexity were interpreted seriously as an important doer of effectiveness. Instead of the ashesulaic fellowship (the crossroad of behaviorism) teachers tried to develop in learners heuristic program acquaintance ( afterward Fox, J. 1992. New Perspectives in modern linguistic process Learning. University of East Anglia. P. 87).Special maintenance was inclined up to the issue of debilitating anxiety, which unlike facilitating anxiety could hinder and raze block the process of language acquisition. As a result of the debilitating anxiety in the lesson the learners comm whole develop a defense mechanism against it. Some of them absent from the work of the class, make a naughty of a line of work, fidget and let their attention wander or plunge into the globe of fantasy. They suffer scrap the teacher with the insufferable behavior or passive onset in the form of silent kvetch. Some learners accuse others of their own learning problems. As draw oution of protest the learners join subgroups of other failure-learners (See Madeline, E. 1996. Understanding Second quarrel Learning Difficulties. Sage Publications).An important issue, which is tackled by the humanistic approach to beli ef is the rejection of the learners by their teachers. The rejection of this type screw be clandestine and show itself indirectly. These teachers prefer not to run across at the learners, which they dislike (gaze of escape). The whole teachers body movement is in the direction opposite to the learners they dislike. The teachers keep a longer somatogenic distance with these learners and give them less verbal contacts and savoir-fairees. These learners ar denied teachers supportive intervention and detailed feed-back that other learners normally enjoy. They atomic number 18 given a reduced teachers waiting clip. pityingistic approach advocated non-conflict, non-judgement and empathy in the relations of the teacher and learners. The importance of the humanisticapproach lies not just in the effectiveness of language learning just also in the development of the personality.Humanistic approach facilitates self-actualization of learners. Self-actualized good deal name a health ier psyche and atomic number 18 to a greater extent(prenominal) capable of a seminal non-stereotyped behavior. This stand bys them to position easily with the group. They demonstrate a more accurate perception of the reality and stomach it without un obligatory conflicts. They focus more on the cognitive problems and less on themselves. These learners brace the capacity for peak experiences (through love, music, artistry, nature etc.) and a greater aptitude for empathy with other people. They argon able to see things other than in b drop and white. exploratory t look 1.1 flying field the following descriptions of the learners and reflect on the affirmable reasons that explain their learning difficulties. Suggest recommendations to advance the statement situation. What individual features of the learners have to be respected by the teacher? descriptions museions Recommended dog is shy, suck upn and obtuse. When called upon for an answer in class, he hesitates a lot and several(prenominal)times does not respond at all. When pushed, his answers ar commonly incorrect. However he does well with indite readiness. Mark is a delightful student. genuinely active and enthusiastic in class. He never has sufficiency time to pad the t learn in class and seldom finishes the test on time bloody shame is inattentive and never followsexplanations in class. She does not seem to understand the grammar rules. However, the next twenty- quadrupletsome hour period she knows the rule perfectly. Clara is very motivated to subject ara English notwithstanding finds it centreless to take kick downstairs in communicative activities. After communicative lessons she feels frustrated. Vera is clever and likes to take classify in discussions. However while rippleing she frequently makes slips such as forgetting, blurring or mixing up word endings. (Some examples are adapted from Leaver, B. 1993. Teaching the satisfying Class. The AGSI Press. P. 4-8)Intensification leaningTotal corporal Response (TPR) is the combination in the teaching method of speech and action (Asher, J. 1969. The total fleshly chemical reaction approach to second language learning. juvenile talking to Journal. 533-17). The method combine verbal rehearsal with motor activities.The wordless Way (Gategno, C. 1972. Teaching contrary haggles in Schools The quiet Way. N.Y.) was based on the assumption that the teacher should be silent as much as practical in the classroom, while the learners will produce more language. A typical feature of the still Way is the use of color charts and rods as memorable images and signals to help in verbal responses. The proposition underlying this method of instruction was that learning is facilitated if the learners discover or fashion even with the minimal language rather than rehearse and remember.Suggestopedy (Lozanov, G. 1978. Suggestology and Outlines of Suggestop edy. N.Y.) aimed at optimizing learning by music and rhythm, authoritative teachers behavior and infantalisations of learners, physical and psychological relaxation. The focus was on the memorization processes, which as claimed by the authors accelerated 25 times over conventional learning. some other example of exploiting resources of human psyche in teaching languages is neuro-linguistic computer programing (NLP). NLP is shaping singles inner globe through re-evaluating ones experience and development the great tycoon of the word. It aims at opening up ones inner resources as a way towards accelerated learning (Beaver. D. purposeless dustup Learning).Exploratory t lead 1.2 bear witness to memorize the following groups of row exploitation resistent techniques. Recall the words a minute after all the t wonders have been through. Write the number of memorized words in the space provided and share the results in the group. Reflect on the reasons for diversity in the resul ts (the centre of the words should be made lighten original) Task 1 Task 2 Task 3 Task 4 Memorize the words by stain Memorize the words by Memorizing the words in Memorize the words by imagining rhythm with your hand associating them with physical blast relaxation crownly and visualizing what objects that you hold in your these words mean hand sleepless tortuous, dupe, hype, Balk, upshot, slobber, freak, Floss, tryst, mediocre, tassel,Zap, trammel, largess, thud, lumber virile tacky naif Number of recalled words communicatory language teaching is based on a number of typical features ofthe conversation process (Littlewood, W. 1981. communicatory language Teaching. transfuse. Savignon,S. 1983. communicative competency Theory and schoolroom Practice. Mass. Widdowson, H. 1979. Teaching language as communion. OUP). run-in learning is tacit as learning to legislate through chat. The emphasis is put on the signifi keept and motivated use of language by the people who communicate in order to achieve a certain intent. Language for learning is derived from communicative experience in a variety of real globe situations.Fluency is put over accuracy. synergetic learning is encouraged as the way towards acquiring conversation skills. The learners are taught negotiating the meaning ( work towards recrudesce understanding each other), and using talk strategies (e.g. circumlocution).Exploratory depute 1.3What features of communicative teaching discharge you detect in the following activities?Activities Features Find the differences surrounded by the pictures that you and your match has without looking at these pictures and only by communicate questions Role play a short earn interview, in which you hope the job as soon as possible while the manager is taking time and is hoping to find a better panorama Agree or disagree with the given statements by marking them as sure, false or debatableand give reasons for ever y answer Each of you have heard only a minor bit of the announcement at the airport. give your bits of knowledge in concert to know what you need. have a bun in the oven an sentiment poll in the group by asking everybody questions and report the results (every learner has a set of their own questions) communicative teaching is a way of teaching a language through conference. The way towards communicative teaching method toilette be traced in the chart to a lower placeMethod Grammar-translation Audio-lingual method Natural approach communicatory activities Subject Language forms Language patterns Whole language Human dis level Learning Language depth psychology Memorization Exposure to the input communicating experienceSAQ 1.2Match the following lines the methodsTasks Methods harken to the tape and react to questions in the pauses Grammar translation provided Find the ways to translate the sentences in your native Audio-lingual language mark a group pre sentation and show it to the class Natural Listen to the intercourse and dramatize it communicative Any method brush off be described as result-oriented or process-oriented with some teaching methods occupying an ordinary position. A result-oriented method advocates the theme of a final refinement with the emphasis on its speediest achievement and the obligatory equal results achieved by all the learners. A process-oriented method focuses on the teaching/learning procedure with the individual pace of learning and the final results vary check to individual learner differences.Form-focused methods focus on teachers and learners attention on the grammar forms of the target language. Form-defocused methods focus on speech patterns rather than on grammar structures.Exploratory project 1.4Find the equal to(predicate) place on the axes for the following method grammar translation, oral approach, audio lingual and communicative (grammar-translation method has been done for you)F orm-focusedYGrammar-translation methodResult-oriented. x X Process-orientedyForm-defocused communicative approach is used distinguishablely in different teaching glossinesss. Teaching civilization is the collective teaching experience, beliefs and practices, which are typical of a certain community or bon ton.communicatory approach is not universally relevant for different teaching cultures. The learners rotter question the effectiveness of the lesson during which they practice communication merely do not learn anything concrete. What have we learned during this lesson of incessant peach?, is a typical question asked by the learners in Asian communities.In japan languages are taught in the typically teacher-fronted and teacher-centered classrooms. A typical lesson consists of the teachers checking the learners sentence by sentence translations of a text. Chinese students can be unwilling to ask questions during a communicative lesson because students they do not want to smash other students or the teacher, it is better to ask after the lesson etc. (Coleman H. 1996.Society and the Language Classroom. CUP).A lesson of English in Russia often includes homework check up, presentation of the new visible and reinforcement of the new material. The teacher, who signals when a specific learner is invited to speak, will regulate learners friendship in the lesson (Millrood, R. 1999. How Native English Speakers force out be Better English Teachers in Russia. The Internet TESL Journal. Vol..5 No 1 1999. Ellis, G. 1996. How culturally abstract is the communicative approach? ELTJ. script 50/3. P. 213-218)Exploratory assign 1.5 attached below are the features of the BANA (British, Australian and North-American) teaching culture. What is to be found in your local anesthetic teaching culture? BANA teaching culture Local teaching culture Learner-centered Learner-autonomy heighten on the whole language faultfinding destineing Inductive teaching Input rea ding 2communicatory competencyWarming up discussion 2.1Brain-storm the concept of communicative competence i.e. the knowledge and skills a learner needs for winning communication and draw a tree plat of this concept Communicative competenceThe idea of communicative competence started to develop with the progress of linguistic competence. Linguistic competence is understood as innate knowledge of language (Chomsky, N. 1986. Knowledge of Language Its Nature, line of merchandise and Use. N.Y. P. 24. Aitchison, J. 1999. The talk Mammal. An Introduction to Psycholinguistics. L.,N.Y.P.180-182. Harley,T. 1997. The psychological science of Language. Psychology Press. P.141). Linguistic competence is only persona of what is needed for communication.Communicative competence encompasses the knowledge of how to use the language in the real universe, without which the rules of grammar would be useless. (Hymes, D. 1971. On communicative competence. University of papa Press. Bachman, L. 1 990. Fundamental Considerations in Language Testing. OUP. P.87).Communicative competence can be described as including grammar competence (knowledge of grammar rules, lexis and phonetics), practical competence (knowledge of how to express a content), strategical competence (knowledge of how to express a message in a variety of circumstances), social-cultural competence (knowledge of social etiquette, national mind-set and determine etc.) (another description of communicative competence can be found in arouseale, M., and M. Swain. 1980. a priori bases of communicative approaches to second language teaching and testing. Applied Linguistics 1 1-47). Communicative competence breaks down into the both major components of the knowledge knowledge of the language and knowledge of how to achieve the goal of communicationCommunicative competence Knowledge of the language Knowledge of how to use the language Competence is not the same as ability. In order to be able to communicate, peo ple need psycho-physiological mechanisms, i.e. communicative skills (After Bachman, L. 1990. Fundamental Considerations in Language Testing. OUP. P. 84-85).Communication is the process of interpersonal interaction and requires the knowledge of social conventions i.e. the knowledge of rules about proper ways to communicate with people.In accordance with the social conventions, musicians in communication perform communicative functions (to socialize, to inform, to persuade, to suggest teaching, to manipulate behavior and opinions, to perform rituals etc), communicative roles (leader, informer, witness, single outicipant, catalyst, entertainer etc) (Ellis, R. 1994. The Study of Second Language Acquisition. OUP. P. 160). In order to perform these functions a verbalizer needs more than just the knowledge of the language.Exploratory task 2.1Give examples of the knowledge you need for successful communication in a number of recent situationsKnowledge for communication Rules of etiquet te Spoken language Grammar and dictionary The process of communication is book of factsized with communicative strategies of achieving a goal through communication (Pollak A. Communicative strategies at work. NJ 1995).Success of communication depends very much on the knowledge of successful strategies chosen by the speakers. E.g. the Prince (in The Prince and the Pauper by M.Twain) was unable to ask because he was only competent in how to give orders. thriving strategies are known as the four maxims of good communication (Grice, H., 1975. Logic and conversation. idiom Acts. N.Y. Academic Press.) These maxims include quality ( put only what is supported by evidence), quantity ( judge no more and no less than you think is needed), relevance (say what is relevant to the point of communication) and behavior (present your ideas clearly an unambiguously) The four maxims of successful communication can be used in teaching how to communicate effectively (Brown, G. and G. Yule. 1983. Teaching the Spoken Language. CUP. P. 71)Exploratory task 2.2 look that you want to borrow some notes from the bank and have to explain to a bank clerk the reasons for taking the loan. Role-play your talk and let your group mates newsmonger on what you say using the four maxims Maxims of communication Comment Quality measuring stick Relevance Manner Communication strategies can be goal-oriented (having a particular goal in mind), partner-oriented (with the partner and his comprehension in mind, using negotiation of meaning, persuasion, self-correction, repetition, circumlocution etc) and circumstances-oriented (behaving consort to the situation) (Wood B. Children and communication. NJ. 1981).In choosing a strategy the participants in communication can prefer all an achievement strategy (guessing, paraphrasing but achieving the goal) or a reduction strategy (co-operation, avoidance and sometimes giving up ones goal partially or completely) (Bygate, M. 1987. Speaking. OUP).Exploratory task 2.3Describe communicative strategies in the following conversation. One has been done for you Conversation Strategies Hello Goal-oriented Can I have a conk to capital of the United Kingdom? Partner-oriented Yeah. Are you coming back now?Circumstances-oriented Erm I an not sure A days return is 6.50. differently its 8.80 Id better take a normal return OK. Thats 8.80 then Fine Thanks. 1.20 falsify please Thanks An integral part of communicative competence (the knowledge of how to communicate with people) is the non-verbal communication. It includes proxemics (physical distance and sprightliness space in the process of communication), kinesics (body language, gestures and postures), facial expression (smiles, eye-contact), haptics (the use of touch in communication), clothing and physical appearance in the process of communication (the concept of decency in clothing and physical appearance), oleactics (communication via purport), paralanguage (um-m, uh-huh etc).Many non-verbal expressions vary from culture to culture, and it is often the cause of cultural misinterpretation. E.g. a physical distance can be too close or mortals private space can be trespassed. Gestures and postures can be inappropriate, there can be a lack of smile and eye-contact. Touching soulfulnesss body during conversation can be taken as offensive. The dressing tog can be alien. Some smells (e.g. lather or breath) can be found intolerable. Vocal confirmation of following the conversations (Aha Etc.) can also be inappropriate. In some cultures humble bows are part of etiquette while others support a proud dependable posture.Exploratory task 2.4Describe non-verbal communication in your native cultureFeatures Description Physical distance Gestures Use of touches bonny clothing prehend smell Smiles essence contact Exploratory task 2.5How would you say the following sentences without words, using the gestures o nly?Communicative goal Description of the gestures Its too hot. Im too chilly SSHHH Be quiet. Come here. Come here quickly Stay back Its dangerous Im animated Im tired What did you say? Exploratory task 2.6Mark as appropriate or inappropriateStatements Appropriate or not A/ A man not opening the doorway to the char B/ Man and woman walking together, woman carrying a tough bag C/ A man not helping a woman out of the bus D/ A man not giving up the oceant in the bus for a woman E/ A person telling the police the truth about his friends involvement in the crime F/ A conjoin man living with his parents G/ A young marry couple pay more attention to themselves than to their newly innate(p) child Exploratory task 2.7 teach the following description of the American character and draw comparisons with your home culture American culture Learners home culture Physical appearance is a key to U.S. culture. Americans are obsessed with body hygiene. They take many a(prenominal) showers, wash their hair often and usually wear clothes only once. commonwealth who have body odor, bad breath, smarmy hair, and do not wear fresh clothes every day may be rejected because of their odor. Americans are probable to be extremely cautious whenthey graceful a new person who seems to want to get closely involved with them. What does this person want? they seem to be asking. How much of my time will it take? provide I be able to withdraw from the relationship if it gets too pick uping? Americans are explicitly taught not to discuss religion or politics. Politics and religion are imagination to be debatable, and discussing a controversial topic can lead to an argument. Americans are taught to avoid arguments, unlike other people who consider politics to be an fantabulous topic for discussion and debate. Input reading 3Communicative teachingCommunicative teaching can be successful if the teaching techniques help to double u p sure communication in the classroomExploratory task 3.1What makes real-world and classroom communication sure, i.e. genuine and natural? List the features in the spaces below genuineness of real-world communication Authenticity of classroom communication Exploratory task 3.2Do these activities help replicate veritable(a) communication in the classroom? If, yes, what makes the classroom communication authentic in each case? Activity Comment A bottle has been found in the sea with a letter in it. The text has been damaged by water and is accordingly blurred. In groups decide what the message says You are to entertain guests before lunch. Role-play the conversation You have always worn glasses but have now decided on geological fault to contact lenses. Prove your decision Each participant has a picture, which is part of the whole story. Without showing your pictures talk to each other and make up the whole story Write a letter of complaint to the hotel ab out their service and demand a compensation for the spoiled vacation Communicative techniquesA technique is a way for a teacher to rig out a learner activity. The purpose of communicative techniques is to teach communication (After Littlewood, W. 1981. Communicative Language Teaching. CUP).Communicative techniques can develop in learners originative, receptive and interactive skills that are needful for effective communication. Activities with auditory sense and reading aim at developing in learners skills of receiving randomness. Activities with oration and writing develop in learners skills of producing schooling. twain can be learner interactive and thus promote communication.Communicative techniques reelect down into a number of groupsA. Language arts are oriented towards a communicative task but are not communicative in themselves. B. Language for a purpose is what thelearners might need to learn how to request information, how to change somebodys behavior or maste rmind of thought, how to co-ordinate efforts in a team, how to express ones emotions etc. C. Communicative games can be alternative communicative techniques with a challenge, rules, procedure and winners. D. Personal language use develops in learners the skill of expressing ones own attitudes and values. E. Theatre art develops communicative skills in simulations such as role-plays. F. Debating society teaches problem-solving skills.G. Beyond the classroom activities insinuate contacts with the native speakers and using the mass media operational to the learners and relevant to their level of language studies (Adapted from Savignon, S. cited in Berns, M. 1990. Contexts of Competence. Social and Cultural Considerations in Communicative Language Teaching. N.Y. P. 88-89)SAQ 3.1Match the following techniques and their featuresTechniques Features Language arts Exposure to the whole language Language for a purpose Cause-and-consequence ratiocination Communicative games Attaining a c ommunicative goal Personal language Winning in a competing activity Theatre art Presenting ones case Debating society Vocabulary and grammar build-up Beyond the classroom pickings up a communicative role Some activities are more associated with reading and listening (receptiveskills), while others are more often used with speaking and writing ( prolific skills). development initiative is create to promote speaking activities. Information wisecrack is a situation when a participant or a group possess the information, which others do not have, while others command the information that the other party is missing. E.g. a student in a pair with the other student might have the channelize timetable for odd numbers, while her partner might have the teach timetable for even numbers. Their task is to use communication for finding out complete information on how the train runs. Information gap can take the format of an opinion gap when the participants differ in their opinions. The g ap is filled in the course of active communication.Any activity with an information gap can be turned into a communicative game if there are rules to name the winner. Information gap is a frequent technique used in order to organize a communicative game. E.g. you have new neighbors. They can tell you about themselves only what is given on their role cards. attempt to guess their professions. subscribe to any questions. Direct questions about professions are excluded.A best-selling(predicate) speaking activity is reading from cues. It is organized when the participants write information about themselves on inept labels in the form of mark words, dates, names etc. Other students ask questions trying to find as much as possible about the person, To achieve this goal they have to think prototypal what a date on the sticky label might mean and ask a question like Were you married in 1991?, May be you got your first job in 1991? etc. cultivation and speaking processes can be boosted by a matching activity, in which the participants are to match pictures and texts, pictures and pictures, texts and texts (both oral and written) by using questions.Jig-saw reading activity is organized most often with the texts that are meant for reading or listening (jig-saw reading and jig-saw listening). A text is divided into several parts. Every participant has access to onlyone part of the oral or written text. They ask each other questions and provide information to pool the parts of the text together and to know the contents of the whole text. Another variant is a jig-saw listening when each participant or a menial group listens to only some information as part of the whole. These pieces can be brought together only in the course of active communication efforts.Another activity for reading is sequencing (re-ordering). The task consists in asking the learners to restore the logical order between parts of the text. This can produce an opinion gap and boost communication.Prod uctive skills of speaking and writing are developed in simulations. A simulation means that an end of the real world is reproduced in the classroom environment in the form of the role-play, discussion (problem solving), piece of writing or a undertaking work.SAQ 3.2Give examples of communicative simulations that can be used to develop productive communicative skills in learners Simulation of productive skills Examples of activities Simulation of speaking Simulation of writing An important aspect of communicative teaching is classroom interaction. This form of communication develops between the learners and the teacher. Learners interaction is organized in pairs, atrophied groups, moving circles, parallel lines of pairs etc. Classroom interaction is a factor in creating a communicative classroom tune and successful communicative teachingExploratory task 3.2Recall your own experience of classroom interaction and complete the military rating form. What can be done to rem ediate interaction in the classroom? Classroom communication Usually Sometimes never 1. The teacher asks the class questions. 2. Students volunteer to brook problems for discussion 3. Students say their opinions freely in class. 4. Teachers ask students to express their opinions. 5. Students speak only when the teacher calls on them. 6. Students tell the teacher in class when they dont understand. 7. Students listen passively when the teacher talks. 8. Students listen passively when classmates talk. 9. Students speak loud enough for the whole class to hear and address the classmates. 10. Students consult with classmates before answering teacher. 11. Students are afraid to make mistakes. 12. Teachers encourage students to risk making mistakes and to speak freely 13. Students ask for the teachers opinions on the problem in class. 14. Teachers organize students interaction in pairs, small groups, moving circles, parallel lines. 15. Students write answers from others during tests. 16. Students coach each other for a test 17. Teachers are open to casual communication Communicative teaching is often organized in the third-phase manakin. Three-phase framework means subdivision of the teaching process into three phases pre-activity, while-activity and post activity. Pre-activity is organized to arouse rice beer in the learners towards the main task, to motivate performance, to initiate in learners their prior knowledge and to have them for the language that can be inevitable to perform the main task. While-activity is organized as oral or written communication and is based on engaging the learners in the communicative tasks. Post-activity is reflection on the ideas and language that was produced during the main activity. This phase also includes supererogatory language drill and integration with other skills. The three phases of teaching are shown in the table Phases Procedures T eacher Learners Pre-activity Increasing motivating for the activity. Activation of prior knowledge in learners. Language preparation. While-activity Oral or written communication. Information gap techniques. Simulation techniques. reflection on the language and ideas produced during the while-activity phase. Focusing on 3. Post-activity the language. Integration with other skills. (Sheils, J. 1988. Communication in the modern-day Language Classroom. Strasbourg)Exploratory task 3.3Match the following communicative tasks with the pre- while- or post-activity phases Tasks Phases Write down all the reasons you can think of for getting marriedPre-activity A husband wants his married woman to stay at home because he is earning While-activity more than enough. The wife wants to be self-reliant. What Post-activity should they do? Agree or disagree with the following statements Interview a on the job(p) woman and a housewife (a pensioner). Report on the findings Look at these pictures of the families. Which family seems happiest and why? Write an essay, Coral gardens of family life Think of positive and negative words when you think of family life Integrated task Give a rationale for communicative language teaching Illustrate the tasks for teaching pronunciation, grammar and lexis (indicate the source) Describe the tasks for teaching speaking and writing, listening and reading Work out a three-phase framework for any one of the tasks Ask your peers to evaluate your three-phase framework task according to the evaluation form and attach it Points of compendium Comment The explanations to tasks are quite clear The task motivates communication The task provides information gap for the learners The task simulates the real world The task develops language knowledge in learners The task develops world knowledge in learners The task creates a reasonable challenge for the learners The three phases of the task are quite log ical The tasks provide for a good communicative practice Answer keysSAQ 1.11B 2A 3D 4E 5CSAQ 1.21B 2A 3D 4CSAQ 3.11F 2C 3D 4E 5G 6B 7ASAQ 3.2Information gap Simulation Matching, jig-saw, interviews, reading the cues, communicative Role-play, problem-solving,socialization, project work etc. games etc Exploratory task 1.11 Frank is a learner who needs more time to think the task over. 2 Mark cant stand the time limits because he is usually overactive. 3 Mary prefers working with examples and deriving a rule from them. 4 Clara is a deductive learner and prefers working with grammar rules. 5. Vera has problems with her phonological development and needs particular attendance to her needs Exploratory task 1.4Oral approach YX audio-lingual xy communicative yXExploratory task 1.51 Teacher-centered, 2 learner-dependence, 3 focus on form and text, 4 memorization, 5 deductive teaching from rule to examples Exploratory task 2.3A 2 3 5 7 9 B 1 8 10 C 3 4 6Exploratory task 2.81 test-tube babies, 2 AIDS, 3 Nuclear powerExploratory task 3.31A 2B 3A 4C 5A 6C 7AGlossaryAudio-lingual method is the way to teach a immaterial language through zealous repetitions of language patterns Communicative approach is a guess of teaching and learning foreign languages that recognizes the primacy of communication as the goal and the media of instruction Communicative competence is the knowledge that is necessary for successful communication Communicative method is a way to teach a foreign language through communication for the purpose of communication Communicative principles are guiding rules of instruction in the framework of communicative approach Communicative situation is a set of circumstances, in which it is necessary to use the language for communication in order to achieve the desired goal Communicative strategies are the means and maneuvers of communication todeal with the goal, partner and circumstances Communicative techniques are the devices to organize teaching in com pliance with communicative principles Community language teaching is a teaching approach that emphasizes the importance of students co-operation, support and interaction Direct method is the way to teach a foreign language by switching over exclusively to the target language in the classroom and intense grammar structure practicing Grammar-translation method is a way to teach a foreign language with the help of contrastive native and target grammar analysis Humanistic approach is an education theory that recognizes the necessity to facilitate free and creative development of the personality Information gap is a technique to give the students complementary information, which they have to pool together in the process of communication in order to fulfil the task Interactive learning is instruction with the tasks that cant be fulfilled by the isolated students but require co-operation Natural approach is a way to teach a foreign language through massive exposure to the comprehensible la nguage input in the classroom Neuro-linguistic programming is a teaching way that combines mental imagery with the language Non-verbal communication uses physical distance between the participants, facial expressions, eye contact, gestures, appearance and clothes, smell and perfume etc. Oral approach is a way to teach a foreign language through oral introduction and practice of the language structures with the help of objects and pictures to create situations Process-oriented teaching focuses on the motivation and involvement in the activities with the expectation of different results in learners according to their aptitude Result-oriented teaching is the shortest way for all the learners in the classroom to achieve the same result Silent way is a method a teaching that attempts to combine creative idea with the minimum of language resources available to the learners (using sloping rods etc) Simulation is a technique to replicate in the classroom real world situations for the purp oses of communicative language teaching Suggestopedy is a teaching way attempting to utilize the confidential cognitive resources in students through relaxation, music and elements of suggestive therapy Total physical response is a way of teaching that combines language rehearsals with physical activitiesReferences and further readingAitchison, J. 1999. The Articulate Mammal. An Introduction to Psycholinguistics. L.,N.Y. Asher, J. 1969. The total physical response approach to second language learning. unexampled Language Journal. 533-17 Bachman, L. 1990. Fundamental Considerations in Language Testing. OUP Beaver. D. Lazy Language LearningBerns, M. 1990. Contexts of Competence. Social and Cultural Considerations in Communicative Language Teaching. N.Y.Brown, G. and G. Yule. 1983. talk about Analysis. CUPBygate, M. 1987. Speaking. OUPCanale, M., and M. Swain. 1980. notional bases of communicative approaches to second language teaching and testing. Applied Linguistics 1 1-47 Chomsk y, N. 1986. Knowledge of Language Its Nature, Origin and Use. N.Y. Coleman H. 1996.Society and the Language Classroom. CUPCook, G. 1989. Discourse. OUP.Crystal, D. 1992. Introducing Linguistics. L. Penguin.Curran, C. 1976. Counseling-Learning A Whole Person Model for Education. N.Y. Ellis, G. 1996. How culturally appropriate is the communicative approach? ELTJ. Volume 50/3Ellis, R. 1994. The Study of Second Language Acquisition. CUPFox, J. 1992. New Perspectives in Modern Language Learning. University of East Anglia Fries, Ch. 1945. Teaching and Learning English as a remote Language. University of Michigan Press Gategno, C. 1972. Teaching Foreign Languages in Schools The Silent Way. N.Y. Haines, S. 1995. Projects for the EFL Classrooms. LongmanHarley,T. 1997. The Psychology of Language. Psychology Press Hymes, D. 1971. On communicative Competence. University of Pennsylvania Press Krashen, S. 1981. Second language Acquisition and Second Language Learning. OUP Leaver,B. 1993. Teachin g the Whole Class. The AGSI PressLittlewood, W. 1981. Communicative language Teaching. CUPLozanov, G. 1978. Suggestology and Outlines of Suggestopedy. N.Y. Madeline, E. 1996. Understanding Second Language Learning Difficulties. Sage Publications Millrood, R. 1999. How Native English Speakers Can be Better English Teachers in Russia. The Internet TESL Journal. Vol..5 No 1 1999. Nunan, D. 1993. Discourse Analysis. Penguin Books.Palmer, H. 1940. The Teaching of Oral English. LongmanPollak A. Communicative strategies at work. NJ 1995Richards, J., and Th. Rogers.1995. Approaches and Methods in language Teaching. CUP Roth. I. 1994. Introduction to Psychology. Volume 1. The Open University Savignon, S. 1983. Communicative Competence Theory and Classroom Practice. Mass. Sheils, J. 1988. Communication in the Modern Language Classroom. Strasbourg Widdowson, H. 1979. Teaching Language as Communication. OUPWood B. 1981. Children and communication. NJ.