Godden and Baddeley (1975) Psychology Essay

Godden and Baddeley (1975) Godden and Baddeley under took a field experiment in which they investigated if being in the same environment when learning/remembering something affects their recall in appose to being in a different environment from where the words are learnt. They did using an independent group design. Godden and Baddeley found 18 deep-sea divers whom were given 38 unrelated two or three syllable words, they all had the same time to try and remember these words. They were then randomly allocated to 4 conditions, one being to learn and recall the words on the beach, the second being to learn and recall the words underwater, the third being learn on the beach and recall underwater and the last being learn under water and recall on the beach. The mean number of results recalled for dry land learning and recall were 13.5, the mean number of results recalled for underwater learning and recall was 11.4, the mean number of results recalled for under water learning and dry land recall was 8.4 and the mean number of results recalled for dry land learning and under water recall was 8.6. The results of this experiment resulted in proving that when learning something in a certain environment, that when recalling/being tested on in that same environment, the results will be better than recalling in a different environment. Godden and Baddeley’s experiment had many strengths, one being that the experiment had ecological validity, meaning the experiment can be generalised to real-life situations, another being that order effects are limited, as the participants are less likely to suffer boredom as they were each assigned 1 condition therefore the validity of the test is not affected, a final strength being that Godden and Baddeley randomly allocated the divers to their conditions making the experiment unbiased. With much strength, the experiment had a few limitations, these being that the participant variables may have affected the experiment as some divers may generally be more intelligent or have good memory, therefore their results would be better than most in either environment, also, when divers were travelling to a different environment from which they learnt their words, they may have been distracted causing them to forget. Finally, the results cannot be applied to the whole population, only divers as the test was specifically done on divers, and not average people.

The Characteristics of Language Acquisition and Development

Language ability starts even before birth and happens in every area of the child’s life. A child absorbs the language that is spoken in their environment with characteristics such as the tonal quality, the syntax, and the usages of that language. A child can learn languages which are spoken by their parents. The child absorbs the language that is most prevalent in the environment they live. It is a unique phenomenon in human life and occurs in a significant time span. Language absorption is provided by nature from birth, up until around the ages of four to five. Early Childhood Language development in the first five years of life is the key for a child’s development of communication and language. In the first five years of life, the language development begins at birth when infants communicate through their cries and the many looks they give. In the next period, infant’s attempts at communication with adults become more deliberate. This period is usually around xix to eighteen months. Infants in this period can coordinate their visual attention with another person regarding objects and events. Their ability to remember comes into play. Their remembering will consist of recognizing and recall methods. Their quest to further their knowledge will help to facilitate their oral language competencies. Oral language Competencies are directly related to the acquisition of literacy. Children learn new words from hearing them in similar positions as they are used in sentences. They learn their words through direct teaching, parent vocalizations, and other points of interest. They also learn words by associating a word they hear with some concrete reference they can see. Their receptive mode in oral language is listening and their expressive mode in that area is peaking. Their written language receptive mode is reading and their expressive mode is writing. â€Å"Children who are fluent in oral language are more successful learners. † â€Å"Being successful learners in this regard leads to better communication skills, better listeners, and the ability to talk with peers and teachers more effectively. † (Otto, 2006) In the third period, from 18 months onward, language becomes children’s primary means of learning and communication. Preschoolers can engage in conversations, can use language for self-control and have the capacity to participate verbally. An infant’s oral competencies are a part of a larger scenario. What children acquire and learn often relates to what they are exposed to in the womb. My grandmother and mother were always big on making sure that they encouraged my sisters and /or their female friends to speak to their unborn children. â€Å"Talk to the little one and let him or her know that you are there. † I firmly believe that my love for music comes from the fact that mother used to tell me that she played music for me the entire time she was pregnant with me. I seriously fell in love with music at around age 2 (by all accounts and photos). The text tells us that â€Å"infants can perceive sounds beginning with the 25t week of gestation. † (Otto, 2006) This makes it extremely important for expecting parents to talk, sing, read, and provide as many sounds and words as possible. Once babies are born, the text also tells us that â€Å"beginning at birth, children are a part of a social environment. It is within this social environment that language development begins. † (Otto, 2010) â€Å"They are also born with predispositions to pay attention to language and people in their environment. † (Otto, 2006) Children will learn words between 18 months and 6 years of age. They begin to distinguish specific phonemes as early as 1 month of age. † (Otto, 2006) They however are still not able to verbally express those distinctions as of yet. An infant will first need to decipher speech sounds that occur within their environment. That’s why it is crucial for parents and/or caregivers to speak, listen, and then respond to whatever their baby is uttering. This will be a kind of reinforcement of developing language patterns. I think this makes me realize the importance of the bonding process that all parents should undertake after birth. The role of a caregiver should follow later after this process is complete. I think this will play a beneficial role in how an infant will acquire his or her oral competencies. Some of our literature offers us a time table as to when some of these accomplishments will occur. The text tells us that â€Å"at six months a child will respond to his or her name. † â€Å"At twelve months, a child uses their words with meaning and intention. † â€Å"The vocabulary increases from that of five to 20 words at 18 months to 150-200 words at two years of age. â€Å"By the age of 4, a child can use at least four prepositions, know names of familiar animals and has mastered one or more colors. † (Atherton, 2008) This leads us to discuss the various ways in which it could be possible for children to acquire language. There are several perspectives that describe the ways in which children can acquire language skills. â€Å"The Learning perspective argues that children imitate what they see and hear; and that children learn from punishment and reinforcement. †(Shaffer,Wood, & Willoughby, 2002). The first is the Nativist Perspective. This perspective focuses on the inborn and/or the innate human capabilities as it relates to the acquisition of syntactic language. â€Å"Applications provide the opportunity to use and explore language to encourage â€Å"hypothesis testing† and activate LAD. † (Otto, 2006)This would be useful in helping young students develop confidence in questioning the information they acquire. This perspective was researched by Noam Chomsky, who is known for his contributions to the study of linguistics and his influence on the teaching of computer languages and mathematics. The next perspective is called the Cognitive Development Perspective. The idea of language acquisition; as it described by theorist Jean Piaget, is â€Å"acquired as maturation occurs and cognitive competencies develop. † (Otto, 2006) Implications would dictate that in order to be successful in language acquisition, â€Å"learning activities should be developed to match a child's stage of cognitive development. † (Otto, 2006) In a classroom setting, this might be a challenging, tedious, but still rewarding endeavor for a teacher. This idea might find more credence in the arena of special education. The Behaviorist Perspective consists of language being learned through repetitive and supported speech. This is also facilitated by â€Å"associations between stimuli, responses, and events following the response. † (Otto, 2006). Students would benefit greatly from the direct correlation and association of everyday objects, activities, and situations. The implications as researched by B. F. Skinner, â€Å"focus on the stimuli and reinforcements that children experience which involve language use. (Otto, 2006) Children's communication efforts are also supported as well as language exercises that involve a repetitive nature. The Interactionist Perspective; focused on by theorist Vygotsky, has a direct connection on sociocultural interaction. Its implications provide a positive emotional basis for social interactions. It also offers a â€Å"wide range of social interactions in which oral and written language are used in developmentally appropriate activities. † (Otto, 2006) For those students learning on many levels this would be a significant opportunity to apply those oral and written language skills with everyday interactions. Out of all the theoretical perspectives listed, I am more impressed with the Interactionist Theoretical Perspective. In my opinion it offers a greater opportunity to apply language acquisition with social interaction opportunities. It also give the child an avenue to be expressive in ways that will benefit them later in their development. these areas might include eye contact with greater confidence, mediation for future conflict resolution, child-directed speech for positive peer relations; and support for questioning. I am always a fan of social interacting building. References http://languagedevelopment.tripod.com/id15.html

Psychoanalytic Perspective on Personality Development

L & D Assignment 1: Psychoanalytic Perspective on Personality Development Submitted By Pravin Bang Submitted To, Prof. Abhishek Kumar Psychoanalytic Theory, conceived by Sigmund Freud and developed and modified by his colleagues, students, critics and later by ‘neo-Freudians' such as Erich Fromm in the 19th and 20th centuries, has been a significant influence and contribution to psychological research, treatment of mental illness and a general understanding of the development and functioning of the human psyche[1].Tenets of Psychoanalytic Theory Though the field has developed into several complex branches with a variety of ideas and theoretical frameworks since its conception, some of its basic and fundamental tenets can be recognised as follows: 1. )Human personality is determined by, apart from hereditary characteristics, childhood environment, experiences and memories. 2. )The Human mind is divided into three ‘parts'(not physically): Conscious, Pre-conscious and Subcon scious.The conscious mind is where we put things which we are currently attentive to, the pre-conscious mind is is where we put things we are aware about but which are not the subject of our attention and finally the subconscious is where we have little control or awareness about the processes or emotions, i. e. , is not reached the conscious mind. 3. )The above concept was later evolved into the idea of the Id, Ego and Super Ego, by Freud. Id is the process of the mind which operates almost solely on the ‘pleasure-principal' and is the source of our impulses and desires, it is a part of the mind when an individual is born.Ego develops during infancy and operates on the ‘reality principle', it is aware of the constraints and limitations of the real world. The Super ego refers to how we perceive ourselves and our moral and ethical values. In this model the function of Ego is to balance the Id and Super Ego within the constraints and limitations of the real world. 4. )Huma n impulses and desires originate from the subconscious mind, this has the profound consequence that we are not in control of our behaviour and drives. The main human drives are sex and aggression.Conflict and neurosis arises when the attempt to bring subconscious drives into the conscious mind meets psychological resistance, i. e. , when certain emotions are ‘repressed' and forced to remain in the subconscious primarily because of their incompatibility with the value systems and moral standards applicable to the self as perceived by the Super Ego. This is done through ‘defence mechanisms'. Psychoanalysis and Childhood Development Psyschoanalytical theory has been an influential concept for explaining the development of an individual's personality.The two major theories regarding this subject are Freud's Psychosexual Development theory and Erikson's Psychosocial Development theory. It is worth noting that both these thoeries lend great significance to childhood environmen t and it can be said that psychoanalytical approaches led to childhood being regarded as being of much greater psychological significance than it had been historically. Erkison's Theory of Psychosocial Development Unlike Freud's Psychosexual theory, Psychosocial Development regards personality being continually affected and modified throughout the individual's lifetime.Erikson's theory defines the the term ‘Ego Identity' which may be explained as the individual's perception and awareness of self developed through social interaction across his or her lifespan. Each stage in this theory is characterised by a conflict or ‘challenge' which arises through differences in personal and sociocultural views and which the individual must resolve to grow into a better personality. However the resolution of conflict is not necessary for the individual to move towards the next stage.The eight stages of Erikson's theory are outlined below: a. )First Stage: Starting from birth and lasti ng for one year, this stage involves the conflict between Trust and Mistrust, with the infant being completely dependent, the competence and consistency of his caregivers would determine whether his outlook towards the world is that of trust or mistrust. b. )Second Stage: Spanning from age two to three, this stage is characterised by the conflict between Autonomy and Shame and Doubt.At this age the child begins to develop motor abilities and is able to fulfil some of his own needs, however parents still remain a crucial support through which and under whose supervision the child starts learning tasks and begins to explore the world around him. Parents who watchfully encourage these early attempts at self-sufficiency instil a sense of autonomy and confidence in the child's personality, however too restrictive or demanding parents may hinder the positive effects of this process and instil a sense of self-doubt and shame in the child. . )Third Stage: Seen in children of age three to si x, this stage is characterised by the conflict between Initiative and Guilt. At this age children rapidly acquire new skills and knowledge, they are learning principles of mechanical causality, lingual and grammatical abilities, performing complex tasks which grant increased self-sufficiency and mastery of the world. At this age the child's motivation for action is that of achievement, he aims to solve a purpose with the tasks he ndertakes, successful resolution of this stage leads to a sense of initiative and leadership, although undertaking tasks which are too complex or not yielding positive results may induce frustration and anger. However, if parents discredit or undermine this newfound motivation of the child he develops a sense of guilt regarding his feelings and urges for getting involved in various actions and tasks. d. )Fourth Stage: Occuring from age five to twelve, this stage is characterised by the conflict between Industry and Inferiority.During these years children be come familiar with and learn about technology and crafts and become motivated to contributing to fruitful and productive action. During this stage the child develops a sense or cooperation and willingness to â€Å"do it right†. Successful resolution of this stage leads to the inoculation of industrious qualities; however failure to achieve a sense of productiveness and mastery leads to feelings of inferiority. e. )Fifth Stage: Spanning from thirteen to nineteen years of age, this stage is characterised by the conflict between Identity and Role Confusion.During adolescence, children explore their independence and develop a sense of self. Those who receive proper encouragement and reinforcement through personal exploration will emerge from this stage with a strong sense of self and a feeling of independence and control. Those who remain unsure of their beliefs and desires will feel insecure and confused about themselves and the future. f. )Sixth Stage: Covering young adulthood from age 20 to 24, this stage is characterised by the conflict between Intimacy and Isolation.During this stage people begin exploring personal relationship and the successful resolution of this stage requires the individual form close, committed relationships and leads to a sense of security. Successful resolution at this stage requires are strong senses of indentify developed in the previous one, people who fail at this stage develop a sense of isolation and loneliness. g. )Seventh Stage: Covering middle age from 25 to 64 years, this stage is characterised by the conflict between Generatively and Stagnation.The main motivation of individuals at this stage is to provide guidance to the next generation; this stage also involves forming strong, accepting and healthy familial relationships. Failure at this stage leads to a feeling of stagnation. h. )Eigth Stage: The final developmental stage, this stage is characterised by the conflict between Integrity and Despair. If the individual is able to look at the life he has led and feel accomplished then he feels a sense of integrity, however failure to do so leads to a sense of despair.Freud's Theory of Psychosexual Development Unlike Erikson's theory, Psychosexual Development postulates adult personality being determined only from heredity or past childhood experiences and memories. Freud outlined the stages of personality development during childhood, being characterised by certain erogenous zones and their attendant conflicts the positive resolution of which leads to a healthy personality whereas â€Å"fixation† at a particular stage, i. e. , getting stuck at the drives of a particular stage leads to negative personality traits, as follows: a. Oral Stage: The first stage of development lasting from birth to 1 years of age, at this stage children explore the world with their most sensitive zone, the mouth. Fixation at this stage leads to habits such as smoking, over eating, etc. b. )Anal Stage: This stage st ars from age to and lasts unto age three, at this age children learn control over elimination of bodily waste. Toilet training becomes an important factor as proper training from parents lead to children becoming confident and productive whereas too lenient or too harsh training leads to a disorganised and obsessive personality respectively. . )Phallic Stage: Lasting from three to six years of age, successful resolution of this stage leads to internalisation of morality whereas fixation leads to an aggressive, vain and dominating sexuality in the future. d. )Latency Stage: Lasts from six years of age until puberty, successful resolution of this stage leads to development of social and people skills and ability to build and maintain relationships. e. )Genital Stage: Final developmental stage, lasts from puberty to most of the adult life, successful resolution leads to psychological independence from parents.References: 1. ) Slater, Charles L. (2003), â€Å"Generativity versus stagna tion: An elaboration of Erikson's adult stage of human development†, Journal of Adult Development 2. ) Erikson, Erik (1956). â€Å"The problem of ego identity†. Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association 4: 56–121. 3. ) Marcia, James E. (1966). â€Å"Development and validation of ego identity status†. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 3: 551–558.

Social Equity Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Social Equity - Assignment Example This was not a problem, except that each time the tests were conducted, results tended to be that white candidates out-performed other minority groups. This trend had sparked an outcry from citizens who construed the outcomes to be possible acts of discrimination. It the confrontation that had ensued, white Hispanics who believed they has passed the exams entered into a legal suit against the City that the results were engineered to discriminate them against the provisions of the constitution (Woods Jr and Gutzman, 2009). The District Court had initially granted summary judgment to the case and the second circuit had affirmed. In determination of the appeal, the court ad observed that Title IV prohibits any acts of employment discrimination on the basis of color, sex, race, religion or national origin under what it interpreted as disparate treatment. The court had also elaborated that other forms of employment discrimination practices include discriminative policies or any practice that succeeds in discriminating, whether intended to be so or acts so by default especially on minorities. Disparate treatment is the discriminatory act in which an employer treats other employees as lesser beings with regard to workplace dynamics (Supreme Court of the United States, 2009). The court had also observed that once a plaintiff has established a prima facie case of disparate act, then it is the duty of the employer has the burden to prove to the court that the position in question and procedures for acquisition are consistent with the necessity of the specific business in question. The court also recognized that in rare circumstances, when an employer takes an intentional course of action that directly discriminates on the basis of taking a precaution to avoid or remedying unintentional disparate impact, even then the employer must have a strong

Leader interview Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Leader interview - Term Paper Example 3-What is your definition of leadership? Leadership, as the name implies, is the term used for leading others. Leading essentially involves supervising, guiding, and administering the team. A leader plans the course of action and assigns roles and responsibilities to the most suitable individuals. A leader identifies the skills of individual team members and makes best use of them. 4-In your opinion what does a leader do that distinguishes him or her from others? A leader serves as a role model for the whole team. The team members imitate the leader in their mannerism, behavior, approach and style of work. The leader assumes the decision making power. The leader is responsible for the whole team while each follower is responsible for his own part of the work. This is the most fundamental element that distinguishes him from others. 5-Do you believe there is a difference between managing and leading? The interface between managing and leading is very blurred and it is often hard to det ermine it, though there do exist certain difference between leading and managing. The leader essentially assumes the decision making power whereas a manager may or may not have the decision making power. A leader is also a manager but a manager is not always a leader. In the usual setting, manager manages things in order to facilitate the work and minimize the inconveniences in the way of accomplishment of the leader’s goals. 6-what is your personal philosophy of leadership? Leadership is a multitude of skills needed to control the audience in a certain setting and for a certain time period to achieve certain goals of mutual interest to the leader as well a as the followers. 7-what skills have you acquired that have been most helpful to you as a leader? Patience, consistency, and foresightedness are three primary skills needed to be a good leader. 8-How would you characterize your style of leadership? My style of leadership is democratic. I give the followers space to speak t heir minds out so that I may find good advice if I can. 9-Who do you consider being great leader? Why? The great leader holds equally accountable for his actions like his followers. He is crystal-clear in his vision and has reasonable justifications to convince the audience to embrace his vision. The leader rewards the followers when they achieve their assigned tasks. The leader is foresighted; he identifies and removes all hindrances in the way of followers. The leader has high self-esteem. He encourages change and innovation and is able to implement the change within the organization. These qualities are important in order to be a great leader because they earn an individual the trust and confidence of the followers. 10- Who have been influential people for you in terms of leadership? Person that has influenced me the most as a leader is Adolf Hitler. I totally adore and appreciate the fact that Hitler came from an altogether non-political background and ended up becoming one of t he biggest ands most talked about leaders in the world. Adolf Hitler’s most obvious leadership trait was bravery and straight-forwardness. An individual without a good fill of these two qualities in his/her nature is not eligible to be called as a leader. 11-How did you learn leadership? Leadership is learnt through practice and responsibility. Even the most casual and

Managing organizational transition Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Managing organizational transition - Essay Example A transition in an organization is crucial for the business to thrive. Factors such as competition and demands by customers affect the transition in an organization. They are perceived to bring better services, innovative products and improve the efficiency of the organization. A well-planned transition sees to it that there is improved competitiveness, an encouraging financial performance, and most importantly an excellent customer and employee satisfaction. Most organizations have invested their time, energy and resources in the management of organizational transition management. The management of organizational transition has been known to increase an organizations power to accelerate the transitions process and to capitalize on the opportunities presented by the transition process. For the effective management of an organization, the company needs build their organizations capability to initiate change and facilitate rapid transitions (Durant 5). Durant also suggests that an organization needs to do away with processes that do not add value. Durant also believes that organisations, change agents should come up with a vision, which reflects on the groups energy the vision should be able to link the present and future. Durant looks at the initial stage during a transition, which he calls the unfreezing stage. He argues that this stage involves unlearning of past behaviours he explains that the organization at this stage experiences disconfirmation, which is an incompatibility between two or more attitudes. He suggests that the organisation needs to reduce the discomfort I agree with Durant, which changes most of the time causes discomfort. Usually it does not only happen in an organization, but also in all aspects of life, a comprehensible form of illustration would be a student who changes schools. In a new schooling environment, one is not at ease and tries so much to fit into the new system for some

Critique of education material Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Critique of education material - Essay Example The material has also given tips for exercises and better eating. It emphasizes on the need of consulting doctors concerning children’s health in general. It is quite clear that the material has provided health education through pictures and graphics. In fact, it has shown how children should exercise and eat appropriate food. Printed material showing how children should engage in physical activities and a critical analysis on how children should feed has been provided. In this case, the printed material portrays a lot on how exercise is a key issue in children lives. Parents with young children are the intended audience for this material. Parents have been advised and given tips on how to provide a healthy diet and plan exercises for their kids. The material has therefore, targeted young parents who are bringing up a family. Parents who are able to read are suitable for this material since the material has wordings and syllables to be contemplated upon. However , those who don’t have reading skills require to be educated upon by a second party. The cultural practices of parents on eating habits are also manipulated when he or she reads the material. In this case, he or she needs to stick to a given diet for the sake of their children’s health regardless of cultural eating habits. For instance, some cultures prohibit pregnant mothers to take some foods which may be nutritious for the baby’s health. If such mothers access this material, they are able to diminish such taboos and stick to the diet suitable for their babies. The material is easy to read and analyze due to its proper display of the wordings and diagrams. The graphics are self explanatory of what it takes for tips on proper diet and exercise. Since it is not written in prose form, punctuation and spelling problems are minimal. It has generally

Product Feasibility Analysis Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Product Feasibility Analysis - Essay Example The new Professor of Plumbing application is aimed to achieve these functions through the use of Android market, Smartphone and the iPhone to achieve these objectives. The application integrates books, tables, calculators that are necessary in plumbing work and piping design to present an enhanced user interactive application that presents faster and more accurate calculations on right angles, offset pipe lengths, plumbing fixture spacing, water pipe size, DWV pipe size, flow rates and volumes among other calculations. These are used daily by plumbing professionals and other professionals where piping system design is required. The application aims at making their experiences to be of a higher level, when using this application. There is a rich market that the application targets as described above. This will ensure the application captures the market, and meets the objectives in both revenues and offering interactive value to customers far and above the price paid for the applicatio n. The design and offering the application for sale have a high profit potential in that, as the application will be downloaded directly from application stores or bough from other professional databases, it will reduce the cost of buying other handsets, as is currently in the market. This will make most plumbers and those involved in design of pipes systems to prefer this application to buying of more specialized calculators. This will increase sales; the monthly and annually subscriptions are intended to increase the revenue base from the sales of this application greatly. The improved features that will be enhanced during development and advancement of this application will ensure that the application delivers maximum value to customers, and this will increase the revenue greatly as more customers download the application to experience these benefits. 2.0 Product Feasibility 2.1Problem identification The current advancing technologies require that operations by all professions an d technicians be made fast reliable, efficient and effective. This means that a plumber has to have all the details they require during the daily operations at their hands. There is too much time wasted where the plumber is required to carry different equipment in a tool box, and this considerably reduces their effectiveness. A plumber will require calculators, manuals for checking angles and pipe diameters and how they correspond during fitting operations, the flow rates calculations and materials that contain many standards that have to be used during calculations in plumbing work. The time required to go though the above materials is too much and is wastage of productive time that reduces hourly productivity of such a plumber. It is necessary to equip the plumber with a new approach that they have to use when plumbing and solving all the above problems effectively. This is the reason behind the new Professor of Plumbing application a versatile application that will ensure speed, reliability, accuracy, precision that make the overall plumbing work much easier as compared to the current situation. 2.2. Product description The Professor of Plumbing Software comes along with the following features that will ensure a sustainable and wide market coverage and usage. Can perform right angles, offset pipe lengths Feet-inch

Asian Art Museum Report Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Asian Art Museum Report - Essay Example Only one of the bent trees has a single fruit with some two men standing at the trunk (Zhang, Sternberg, and Rayner 14). I personally chose the piece of art due to the artistic abilities of the painter especially considering the fact that he could paint a quality piece of art depicting an Asian religious aspect. The artist carefully and creatively chooses colors that resonate well with the culture and environment of the practice by Asian monks. Their color choice consists of red, white, blue, and green to create clarity and contrast that leads the viewers to understand what the image is all about and the implications of the image on the viewers. The artist also strikes a religious code in the viewers through their choice of the subject matter where they show religious men dressed in specific regalia of a definite color (Zhang, Sternberg, and Rayner 16). Besides the use of distinct colors, the artist has used a circular shape as outlining the edges of the painting. Circular shapes normally depict peace and tranquility. In addition to the use of shapes, another crucial aspect about composition plays out especially at the foreground and the middle ground where the artist keenly locates the men and other natural elements like trees at specific and adjacent positions to show the interdependence and functionality of all the elements depicted in the piece of art. This helps the viewers to figure out the significance of the natural environment to the sustainability of humanity (Zhang, Sternberg, and Rayner 22). All these attracted my attention and I believe they are a sure eye catcher for any prospective individual looking for Asian pieces of art. This is because throughout the painting, the artist has tried to maintain a smooth texture to indicate the nobble course for which the men are involved. I am particularly interested in the artist’s creativity in telling the story about the Chinese animal

Career Goal Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Career Goal - Case Study Example A student learning business must have good analytical abilities, solid mathematical understanding, good communication skills, and the ability to identify problems and find solutions. Accounting is the discipline in business dedicated to identifying, tracking, recording and analyzing economy activity. The information is tracked in an accounting information system. In order for a person to succeed in this type of work the individual must be good following specific procedures and algorithms to perform their job duties. The specialty I desired to study at the graduate level is international finance. Wall Street has always opened up my curiosity. To me Wall Street is the place to be as a finance enthusiast, on the other side of the hemisphere the city of London is a place were high level financial activity is taking place right now. The stock market in both these cities is a main driver of economic activity. The investors in these areas of the world now know exactly how the information involving reporting of financial information will look like since in Europe public must utilize international financial reporting standards while in the United States public entities must follow the general accepted accounting principles. According to Salary.com the median starting salary for an Accountant

Roller coaster project Essay Example for Free

Roller coaster project Essay The batman rollercoaster is an extreme, thrilling rollercoaster. The batman rollercoaster was introduced 1997 and, 2,700 feet long! The original installation of the ride is at Six Flags Great America featured a maximum height of 100 feet while the installations to follow reached 105 feet. The rides reach a top speed of 50 miles per hour and exert up to four times the force of gravity. Potential energy, kinetic energy, Newton’s laws of motion and the design of the batman rollercoaster functions. When you first start off you go up this big hill, you are increasing your potential energy, and when you reach the top you’re at maximum potential energy. At that moment when you start to rush down the other side of the hill you turn that potential energy into kinetic energy. Gravity is the force that pushes you down the hill. Then you’re about to go in a loop, when you’re at the bottom of the loop your kinetic and potential energy is about the same since you about used half of your potential energy from coming down the from the hill. When you’re midway through the loop you have a little bit more potential energy since you’ve gone up a hill and when you are coming down from the loop you use that potential energy. Then you go down another hill and that increases your kinetic energy and decreases your potential energy. Then you start going through all of these turns witch slows you down because of all the friction. Then, very sadly, you are done with this spectacular ride. Newton’s laws of motion affect how the rollercoaster functions. Newton’s first law of motion states that every object in a state of motion tends to remain in that state of motion unless an external force is applied to it. The rollercoaster will keep on going down the hill at the same constant speed if this was not true. Friction is the external force that slows the rollercoaster down. Newton’s second law of motion states that the acceleration of an object depends on the mass of the object and the amount of force applied. Think about the design, witch we will talk about later, it is a chain lift rollercoaster. If everybody that rode on the rollercoaster had a mass of 200 kg the rollercoaster would be slower unless there was more force from the chain-lifts. Newton’s third law of motion states that whenever one object exerts a force on a second object, the second object  exerts an equal and opposite force on the first. Think about the harness that you wear and the seat that you’re sitting in, when pushing against them they are also pushing back on you. The design connects everything that a roller coaster does. The design of the rollercoaster is a chain lift. In the beginning of the ride you can see the chain that lifts the roller coaster carts. If the designers left that out the roller coaster would not function right. Like I said before the more mass the people on the rollercoaster has the more force it takes to accelerate them. If the chains were there but shorter the rollercoaster would not have enough potential energy to complete the track. Potential energy, Kinetic energy, Newton’s laws of motion, and the design of the batman roller coaster affect how it functions. Reference Page By: Stephen Morris

American History Essay Example for Free

American History Essay Introduction: American History has always been persuasive and this paper enlightens most influential events in the U. S history. Following paper explains the events from 1950’s, 1960’s, 1970’s, 1980’s and 1990’s. Events that have been selected are the one that had an overriding influence on U. S. culture, economy, or governmental policy in that decade. A Step towards Technology: In early 1950’s film theater presence radically declined due to the innovation of television which impacted everyone politically, socially and economically. Hollywood commenced to build up ways to counter free televisions expand by the mounting use of color, and also by bringing in wide-screen films for example: Cinemascope, Cinerama, Vista Vision and etc. Gimmicks for example 3-D presentation with cardboard glasses were also initiated. Several technical improvements within amusement facilitated citizens to survive in a great compact of better-off and thrilling living. The foremost mania that came approximately to standard public was television in 1950’s. It was required by each family in the fifties and it overwhelmed millions of kids whose connection with Television has everlastingly inclined this countrys customs and political affairs. TV enforced numerous journalists and broadcasting corporations to labor hardest in maintaining their businesses in level to Television. (1950s, 2000) In the fifties TV merely had series which were accessible to watch in early afternoons and evenings plus it wasn’t colored only black and white. A number of the popular television shows were westerns like The Honeymooners, I love Lucy, The Twilight Zone, Private Eyes and Superman (Diriks , n. d. ). An Inspiration: Moving towards 1960’s most significant event came in view. Martin Luther King’s Speech ‘I have a dream’ in 1963 was a dynamic force in the push for racial equality. (The Groovys 1960, 2009). The purpose of this speech â€Å"I Have a Dream† which was conveyed which was held at Lincoln Memorial, Washington D. C took place the 28th August 1963 through more than 200,000 citizens was to give confidence for the performing of change among the American citizens and government it was related to their shocking observation towards diverse races or ethnic groups among their people. Martin Luther particularly placed stress on the black Americans being sufferers from professional and personal both ranks. His task was to place major strain on the government which was regarding passing the Civil Rights Bill and its people by telling the errors of their behavior and the pledges which were undeniably not kept all through the history. He also demanded changes and provided answers and in doing that required a lot of persuasion towards them to approach together as a one nation. The Rising civil-rights movement moving across the nation at that time; Productive speech of Martin Luther King made it more effectively, electrified it. Due to the previous immersive civil rights movement of the 1960 U. S went through a huge racial split which is more likely to be on racial discriminating at its climax. The Americans who were white felt themselves as superior and therefore the realism of life for the black Americans was rather unwelcoming. That’s why the enormous bulk of black Americans became as a separation of life, breathing with unpleasant injustice in service, housing, medical services, education and civic adjustment. Even the so called selection of a chosen president could not help them because a lot of were deprived from taking part in any of American political system. Everything was surrounded by an unfair ambiance that he was the only who was capable to raise as an influential leader among the civil rights movement. The Act controlled countless things that Martin Luther King had before asked of the government publically which showed the rule was in fact taking note to the people concerning the following matter. Martin Luther King was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize for his effort, he was the youngest among to get such a Nobel award. (I Have a Dream, 2000) Getting the Blame: The blame for murdering the entire civilization of Vietnam was put on American soldiers. This was considered as one of the most tragic event in the American History. Almost every person in Vietnam especially people in south had to go through the large scale bombing and target killings. The effect in the south during the war’s height in 1960 was so extreme that about half of the population of 20 million was dislocated. The northerners also suffered a lot; warfare and resentment continued on with neighboring countries until 1989. The after effects of the war were humongous. Many civilians lost their relatives and expensive assets. After the war Vietnam was not active in any military conflict. Following the war, the North and South Vietnam were again unified beneath the Socialist Republic of Vietnam. Postponement of the hateful battle in North Vietnam was also announced on 15 January 1973, it was afterward tagged along by a biased departure of American troops on Vietnam. Americans concerned and involvement in the Vietnam clash officially came to an end by the signing of Paris Peace Accords on 27 January 1973. On February 11 and March 29, the first batch of U. S. prisoners was released and American army was structured to depart respectively. The most astonishing factor was the fact when the army was coming back from War who was suppose to be treated as heroes incase that did happen, even at times damned for their contribution towards the Vietnam war. Even the contract of peace did not last for an extended period. American army consequently faced by the expectation of having won mainly of the war battles, however it was like having missing the peace. (Timeline of the 1970s, 2000). The American president Nixon was the one, who assured South Vietnam that he would give armed forces hold to them in experiencing the degeneration of military situation. But Nixon was having other problems at his end as well. Nixon was combating for his political profession and his existence. The Watergate humiliation which was intense at the moment faced a gradually more aggressive parliament that held the power of an antagonistic community who were tired of the Vietnam War. Therefore Nixon ruined his pledges towards South Vietnam which was expected. Both fiscal and monetary assist towards South Vietnam sustained although it was almost cut within half. Mainly the help went to the corrupt officials and a minute of it truly went to the needy and people who suffered from the war. Further USSR and China both augmented their support towards the North Vietnam. This clearly showed the imbalance between the North and South Vietnam and thus North Vietnam initiated a foremost military unpleasant stroke which was against south. The course which was completed by Congress; Foreign Assistance Act of 1974 held in December 1974. This completion cut off all military funding to the Saigon government and made unenforceable the peace terms negotiated by Nixon. The reason behind such an action was that it was assumed so as to any innovative military tools shipped to South Vietnam would rapidly handed over to the winning communists. Economical reforms acknowledged as d? i m? i (renovation), introduced by the management since the late 1980s, have been constructing stunning outcomes. Vietnam today is one of the greatest escalating economies in the world, which is filled by exports and overseas direct savings. America became the major export marketplace for Vietnam into fewer than two years after the signing the bilateral deal concurrence in 2001. (The end of U. S invovement, 2007) The Hero: Another event which motivated and provoked almost every woman in the history and the addition of heroes was taken place. The definition and theory of a hero is one that is greatly questioned and pondered. Some people look up to parents, a few admires Lincoln or Martin Luther King while rest of them has superstars. But for my part my hero would be one who had accomplish somewhat that placed a fresh normal in this nation. Sandra Day O’Connor is my hero. President Reagan designated O’Connor on August 19, 1981, for the post of Associate Justice in the United States Supreme Court. On September 25, Sandra was established with the voting of 99-0 and she was avowed in being the first female judge to be on the United States Supreme Court. And for the further 24 years, she controlled upon the Supreme Court. She was the common swing vote amongst closest verdicts. Sandra was frequently portrayed as being the changeable in a way, constantly gave trust to each side. She showed her concerned and knowledge during the time she served for her nation being associate justice. For example, in the decision of Roe v. Wade, her vote, though not the choosing one was serious in allowing abortion privileges. (Derek) From the time period of 1981 to 2006 she was a former American judge and elected official who served as being the first feminine Associate Justice of the Supreme Court in the United States. Her case-by-case move toward jurisprudence and her comparatively reasonable political views, Sandra was the vital swing vote of the Court for quite a few of her final time on the counter. Forbes magazine called her the fourth most influential woman in the United States and the sixth most commanding in the world in 2004. (OConner, Sandra Day, 2006) Bill Clinton Impeached: Moving toward the late 1990’s the most shocking event ever which happened for the first time in U. S political history; The impeachement of Bill Clinton. (President Clinton Impeached, 1994) The House impeached Bill Clinton on accusation of false swearing and hindrance of justice in connection to his concern among Monica Lewinsky who was White House intern. Clinton was ultimately acquitted by the council. In 1998 the U. S. House of Representatives chose in goodwill of two articles of the impeachment. Days sooner than departure of office, he hit a contract with the office of the particular prosecutor in that case so to keep away from an indictment. He further confessed to building deceptive testimony and then was suspended from working law in Arkansas up to five years. Although his wife, Hillary Clinton was voted as a U. S. Senator in 2000 from New York. It was the first point in time a lady had ever been voted to public workplace. Bill Clinton achieved admiration for his determination and his management of the workplace despite of a variety of controversies, strong-minded to increase above them somewhat than be pulled behind by them. It was a major shock to the public because such a leader is a mentor towards them and people still love they were disappointed and disturbed. (The History Place, 2000) Conclusion: History is not about getting disppointed towards our leaders or getting disturbed. Its about learning from our mistakes. American History holds great goals toward every aspect whether it is economical or political or social. There is a lot to learn and improve though many misunderstanding led to wars and severe damage but a lot of thing can still be done. Right now U. S is going through many crisis which are hidden. Changes can be done if racial discrimination can simply vanish. A lot of economical crisis have faced which can’t be changed by U. S by it has to be done on a global level as the whole world is facing them. References: 1950s. (2000). Retrieved July 10, 2010, from 123helpme: http://www. 123helpme. com/view. asp? id=22923 Derek. (n. d. ). My hero project. Retrieved July 10, 2010, from my hero: http://www. myhero. com/go/hero. asp? hero=Oconnor_Cupertino_hs_06_ul Diriks, T. (n. d. ). 1950s. Retrieved July 10, 2010, from filmsite: http://www. filmsite. org/milestones1950s_2. html I Have a Dream. (2000). Retrieved July 10, 2010, from maikeru: http://www. maikeru. cc/english_ihaveadream_martinlutherkingjr. htm OConner, Sandra Day. (2006, March 22). Retrieved July 10, 2010, from girlscantwair: http://girlscantwhat. com/oconner-sandra-day-supreme-court-justice/ The end of U. S invovement. (2007). Retrieved July 10, 2010, from factasy: http://www. factasy. com/vietnam_war/index. shtml

Direct to Consumer Advertising of Prescription drugs

Direct to Consumer Advertising of Prescription drugs Abstract In Pharmaceutical industry, promotional advertisements are mostly targeted towards physicians but in recent years trend has shifted towards consumer advertisement. In many cases of Direct to Consumer Advertisement (DTCA) the pharmaceutical marketers and manufactures creates hype among patients towards disease and ultimately towards brand. It provokes the patients to seek additional information on the brand and push for its prescription generation. Objective of this study is to determine attitude of the physicians towards DTCA, and what extent patients request for particular brand leads to actual prescription generation of the advertised drugs. This study reveals that the doctors generally have positive attitude towards DTCA and are willing to provide relevant information to the patients and in some cases even provide sample of medicines or go for direct prescribing, if found relevant, as asked by the patient. This study justifies the pharmaceutical industry manufacturers sp ending in DTCA. It is also thought provoking for health policy makers that prescription drugs are being advertised directly which may lead to increased medication cost and misuse of medicine. Key words: Direct to consumer advertising, Direct to Consumer Advertised Brand, Over the counter drugs, Prescription drug. Physicians attitude. I INTRODUCTION Companies rely heavily on product detailing to physicians, which are the customer, (Zangla, 2004). To increase overall sales figures marketers started advertising directly to consumers of disease and even drug brands, (Amaldoss He, 2009). DTCA is not allowed specially for prescription drugs, (Donohue Berndt, 2010). One argument is that DTCA is a public service message about a particular disease and only plays a role as information provider and motivates people to seek proper treatment if required (Kuhn, 2006). Many researchers found DTCA good for General public health, (Bradford, Kleit, Nietert, Ornstein, 2005) and beneficial for patient care (Murray, Lo, Pollack, Donelan, Lee, 2004). So it is considered as DTCA has both merits and demerits, (Murray, 2003) 1.1 Research Objective In recent years Pharmaceutical Companies drastically increased their spending on Direct to Consumer Advertising (DTCA) (Herzenstein, Misra Posavac, 2005). In 1997 Federal drug authority (FDA) permitted DTCA and subsequently pharmaceutical companies started increasing their expenditure on direct advertisement to provoke consumers to ask their doctors about the drug (Green, 2007). Patient is more comfortable in using drug brand which is familiar to patient, (Zuvekas, 2008). Consumers have positive attitude towards DTCA and tries to find out additional information about Directly to Consumer Advertised Brand (DTCAB). To get additional information patient consults their doctor, (Herzenstein, Misra, Posavac, 2005). Asking questions by patients has strong influence on doctors selection criteria of drugs (Iizuka Jin 2005). General attitude of physicians towards DTCA its impact on prescription generation is still unknown (Herzenstein, et al., 2005). If physicians have positive general attitude towards DTCA, it may lead to actual prescription generation. Moreover if patients shows more likelihood of searching additional information tries to inquire additional information by asking questions from physician about DTCAB also leads to prescription generation (Herzenstein, et al., 2005). Information inquired from the physician about DTCAB of medicine is taken as second independent variable, pressurizes physicians towards prescribing that specific brand of drugs. Patients adherence influenced by DTCA motivates patients to seek additional information about the drug from physicians (Amaldoss Chuan, 2009). 1.2 Rationale of study 1.2.1 Increased spending on DTCA from pharmaceutical companies. Pharmaceutical companies have increased their spending in last decade, and they are planning to do more (Atherly Rubin, Feb 2008). Physicians are considered to be the best judge to decide medicine , keeping in view the patients and drugs characteristics. Due to information flow and access through electronic and print media, consumer tries to get more information about the drug and disease. With this the pharmaceutical companies started promoting prescription drugs directly to consumers. At the end of many advertisements it is advised to consult your doctor for further information, but ultimate goal is the prescription generation. These advertisements provokes patients to visit their physicians and asking information and if it is appropriate then whether it can be used or not. It is presumed by the companies that doctor will prescribe the medicine as per patient request, but it is still unknown that what is the general attitude of doctors towards direct to consumer advertisement This study will help marketers of pharmaceutical companies in finding the answer to the question, whether they are helping people in getting medication, from physicians perspective, and are they really making returns on this investment on DTCA. 1.2.2 Health policy makers. Drugs are classified in two categories, one is Over the Counter Drugs (OTC) and other is called Prescription drugs (PD). OTC drugs are usual drugs which have comparatively lesser side effects and can be used without consultation of physicians. Conversely the PD which are of either critical use or may be associated with serious side effects, and can only be used if advised by physicians. In like manner promotion of PD were made only to the physicians through detailing. Pertaining to the severity of life and death related to use of PD, DTCA should not be done for PD. But PD are being advertised under the head of Disease Advertising (DA). It should be the major concern for health policy maker either the PD are being used appropriately as per physicians advice or not. As extensive DTCA of PD may lead to misuse of medicine, increased treatment cost and unnecessary visits to physicians. DTCA should not have that much impact to generate prescription of DTCAB, if it is then specific policies should be developed to balance the usage of DTCA with its risks. 1.2.3 Knowledge contribution. It has already been explored in many researches that DTCA has both merits and demerits. Some physicians generally perceive that DTCA is good for patient overall health but from other school of thought it is just in favor of pharmaceutical companies, only physicians can better decide which drug to be used or not. In medical sciences the selection of medicine is based on mainly three factors, kind of disease, doctors judgment, patients affordability and liking or psychological experience factor of any brand (Prosser, Almond and Walley, 2003). In previous researches the impact of both physicians and consumers have been explored. But the combined impact of both variables has not been studied before. This study for the first time explores the combined effect of the two main independent variables. My research will find out the preference of physicians towards DTCA and whether information seeking by the patients leads to prescription generation. II LITERATURE REVIEW Pharmaceutical industry is heavily driven by customers (doctors) and very marketing and selling intensive (Scherer, 1990). Primarily the focus was only on doctors (customers) but recently the trend is also shifting towards addressing consumers directly (Matthews, 2001). The medium used for accessing consumers is electronic media including the internet and television advertisements, consumers are now able to freely access information about drugs and their brands which in some cases can lead to misuse of medicine and increased cost of treatment (Matthews et al., 2001). Pharmaceutical companies are now targeting advertisements towards patients which entice patients to ask for prescription of only advertised drug, the patients behavior is also effecting and directing the health systems. Matthews (2001) quoted Dr. Reardon, ex president of American Medical Association (AMA), has insightfully noted, Patients themselves are also creating a strong impetus for change. Disillusioned by restrictions on coverage and care, they are increasingly demanding choice of physician, hospital, and even type of health plan. More than ever, patients see physicians as the essential point of trust in a changing system, and demand choice and stability in their vital relationships with their doctors. At the same time, patients themselves are becoming better educated, not only about insurance options but also about medical treatments. Today, thanks to the Internet, trends in product advertising, and the massive proliferation of medical information, patients are better equipped to take part in their care than ever before. Rather than simplifying the physicians job, however, this increased patient knowledge base is creating new challenges. The other argument that supports DTCA says that it encourages hard to reach sections of populations to seek information about diseases, but it should be balanced against the increased cost of medicine from unnecessary requests generated by DTCA (Murray Pollack Donelan and Lee, 2003). DTCA has both positive and negative effects on health behaviors, health service utilization (Murray et, al., 2003). Almost five years back ads for prescription drugs were very rare but these are becoming very common in recent years, and are being advertised like any consumer goods, direct to consumer advertising (DTCA) has grown rapidly (Scherer, 2004). On the other side consumers behavior is supportive towards DTCA and would like to get more information and ask for a particular brand from physicians (Herzenstein, 2004). Another research shows that DTCA had no statistically significant effect on the choice of antidepressant (Donohue Berndt, 2004). There are three variables involved in prescription cho ice, one is Patient characteristic, second is features of medication and third is physicians preference for medication choice, moreover detailing is found to be the most effective in physicians preference for medication choice (Donohue Berndt, 2004). Increase in pharmaceutical pricing is due to increase in expenditure incurred on DTCA. 2.1 Conceptual framework Now the question arises that whether there is an impact of DTCA on sales or not (Scherer, 2004). It is also found that DTCA encourage patients to visit physicians and use specific brand medicine (Iizuka, 2005). It is agreed that DTCA has decreased the time between diagnosis and use of medicine and promotes the patients to consult their physician. 2.1.1 Inquiry about additional information or request for prescription. It has been argued that patient may demand the product just because of the attractiveness and persuasion of the advertisement, rather than look in to the effectiveness of the drug and go for proper consultation from doctor (Bradford, 2005). This is not unusual in pharmaceutical, as is a significant change from the traditional emphasis on physicians detailing, it has been found that the traditional selling of pharmaceutical brands to physicians is changing and prescription drugs is being marketed directly to consumers, as other consumer goods, as detailing and price are found to be complementary strategies for the firms in addition to the traditional detailing, (Brekkea, 2006) 2.1.1 Actual prescription generation. Still questions arises about the impact of DTCA on welfare of patients, if allowed then will lead to More visits to physicians, and they pressurizes to get prescription of desired medicine. (Brekkea et al., 2006). It is also shown that the pharmaceutical manufacturers are also facing challenges from DTCA because they has to do extensive detailing to physicians because of DTCA is also being done, so it should be banned as to keep focus on detailing (Brekkea et al., 2006). It will induce demand for new users of antidepressant medicines and can exaggerate the usage if already that medicine is being used, and will lead to misuse of brand (Chad Meyerhoefer, 2007). Direct to consumer advertising is very important and of course controversial part, advertising in journals, detailing and distribution of samples are used along with direct to consumer advertising which may leads to induce demand and generate more sales (Pasdirtz, 2009) III RESEARCH METHODOLOGY Research methodology is a system or methods followed by particular discipline of an inquiry or investigation into a subject in order to discover or revise facts, theories, applications etc. (Oxford Dictionary, 2007). This study is an applied form of research leading to the basic knowledge contribution, and is an extension of work done by Zachry, (2003). As pharmaceutical industry is very important, it has to play an important role, on one side it claims to be for better health of patients but no doubt they are making huge profits, here comes the role of health policy makers to make it justified. Moreover it is to find out the general attitude of physicians about DTCA and information asked by patients about any particular DTCAB, and its relation with actual prescription generation if asked by patient. 3.1 Problem Statement Hypothesis Pharmaceutical companies in Pakistan are promoting their brands directly to consumers (patients), now the question is What is the attitude of physicians towards DTCA, and do they provide relevant information and prescribe medicine if asked by patient. Positive attitude of physicians and information asked by patients of advertised medicine leads to prescription generation Now the objective of study is qualitative estimation of attitude, and what physicians are most likely to do if patient inquires information after exposure of pharmaceutical advertisement. Even patient may ask for prescription of specific drug, then what is the usual response of physician. 3.2 Hypothesis H-1 : Attitude of physicians towards Direct to consumer advertisement is positive. H-2: Physicians provides information of drug which is asked by patient after exposure to pharmaceutical advertisement. H-3: If found relevant, physicians prescribe the particular drug which is requested by patient on exposure to pharmaceutical advertisement. H-4: Positive attitude of physicians towards DTCA and query about information of a particular brand of medicine leads to actual prescription generation. ATTITUDE3.3 Model Independent Variable 1 PRESCRIPTION GENERATION Attitude of Physicians towards Direct to Consumer Advertising of prescription drugs Dependent Variable Actual Prescription Generation on request from patient of DTCAB medicine INFORMATION Reaction on request of information about particular DTCAB medicine Independent Variable 2 PRESCRIPTION GENERATION Dependent Variable Actual Prescription Generation on request from patient of DTCAB medicine 3.4 Data Collection Data was collected in field setting, respondent were general practicing Doctors/Physicians in hospital setting, as per previously done by (Friedman, 2006) to know the attitude of doctors. We selected hospitals because it has been found that hospitals play an important role in direct to consumer advertising (Adeoye Bozic, 2007),. 3.5 Sample and Population we choose leading hospitals of Rawalpindi/ Islamabad which have high patient turnover, i.e Pakistan institute of medical Sciences, Rawalpindi general hospital, Nescom Hospital and Shifa International. Within these hospitals we selected doctors on judgmental basis, as doctor who is dealing with more than 50 walk-in patients as previously done by (Taneja, Arora and Kaushik, 2007) and found appropriate. Sample size was taken 250, as per sample size taken by other researchers for the same kind of purpose (Bhanji, Baron, Benjamin, Lacy, Gross, Goin, Summner, Fischer, and Slaby 2008). 3.6 Instrumentation A questionnaire was adopted from two authors. Questionnaire has three parts, in first part general attitude of physicians towards direct to consumer advertising (Donhue Berndt, 2004), and in second part the likelihood behavior of physician if patient asks for more information related to drug being advertised directly, and in last part the likelihood of physician if patient asks for prescription of certain medicine (Zachry,Dalen, and Jackson, 2003). 3.7 Data Analysis These two were independent variable and one variable of prescription generation is dependant variable. Quantitative method were used, Microsoft Excel and SPSS was used to calculate percentages and relative comparison in questions through as per previous research done by Bhanji, 2008. IV FINDING AND ANALYSIS 4.1 Data Reliability and Normality Collected data is validated from Cronbachs-Alpha value which is used by many researchers like Zachry; Dalen, and Jackson, (2001,2003). The value came up to 0.8 which is acceptable as it should beis more than 0.6. Taneja, Arora and Kaushik, (2007) used descriptive statistical data analysis, I moreover used SPSS to regress two independent variable with dependent variable. 4.2 Descriptive Statistics of Respondents 4.2.1 Independent variable 1, attitude. In first part of questionnaire it is found that 40 % agree and 20 % strongly agree that it makes patients better informed and 46% agree with 32% strongly agree that it causes them to seek medical doctor. 40% agree that it also informs about side effects, although the data shows that there is increase in medication cost. Little agreement on suggesting medicine from patients. More that half percent of people suggested that it is good trend in health care, and causes more time spent in front of doctor while discussing disease. 42% agree that this also helps in increases motivation towards treatment. 39% think that it not only provokes patients to visit doctor for better health but also encourages, 41%, patients to talk to their doctor about right concern. 41% agree that it also helps in following treatment instructions and 58% with 7% strongly agree that it improves the understanding of medical conditions and treatment.1 is for strong agreement, 2 is for agreement, 3 is neutral and 4 is for disagreement while 5 is strongly disagreement.General description and frequency analysis is given in Table 4.1 OVERALL ATTITUDE OF PHYSICIANS TOWARDS DIRECT TO CONSUMER ADVERTISING ATTITUDE Questions Asked Variance Std Deviation Make patients better informed about their medical problems 1.18 1.08 Motivate patients to seek medical care 1.21 1.1 Provide enough information on other treatments 1.41 1.18 Do a good job of informing patients of side effects 1.3 1.15 Have less or no impact on increase in medication cost 1.08 1.03 Helps doctors in suggesting medicines from patients 1.06 1.02 Are a positive trend in health care 0.94 0.97 Increase in time spent with doctor 1 1.01 Increases motivation towards treatment, overall drug consumption 0.8 0.89 Increase more doctor visit for better health 1.47 1.21 Encourages patients to talk to their doctor about their right concerns 1 1 Encourages people to follow treatment instructions or advice from their doctors 1.15 1.07 Helps patients get treatments they would not otherwise get 1.16 1.07 Have less of no impact on driveing up the cost of prescription drugs 1.17 1.08 Improves peoples understanding of medical conditions and treatments 0.89 0.94 4.2.2 Independent variable 2, information. 44% agree that they become frustrated, 37% get annoyed but 52% agree and 32% strongly agree that they answer patient question about medication if asked. Only 35% agree that they provide more information. General description and frequency analysis is given in Table 4.2 LIKELLIHOOD OF PHYSICIANS WHEN ASKED FOR SPECIFIC BRAND DUE TO DTCA INFORMATION Questions asked Variance Std. Deviation You become frustrated with patient for asking for more information about disease or medicine 1.57 1.25 You become annoyed with patient for asking for more information about disease or medicine 1.42 1.19 Answer patient questions about the medication 0.79 0.89 Provide more information to patient beyond original inquiry 1.39 1.18 Attempt to change subject rather than discuss the medication 1.4 1.18 Explains that the information is probably beyond patients comprehension 1.42 1.19 4.2.3 Dependent variable, actual prescription generation. It is revealed from data that 37% get frustrated, 36% get annoyed if asked to prescribe certain brand and 36% feel uncomfortable with this request, and even less willing to communicate to the patient 33%, mostly 41% are neutral. With this if samples are available then 61% agree and 17% strongly agree to provide samples on patient request, it is also supported by agreement of 51% and strong agreement 24% that they will prescribe medicine if no medicine is available. But if found relevant, as while asking question of simply prescribing the medicine if is anyway relevant , to satisfy the patient then the agreement was 47% and only 8% with strong agreement. General description and frequency analysis is given in Table 4.3 LIKELIHOOD OF PHYSICIANS ON REQUEST OF PATIENT FOR SPECIFIC BRAND PRESCRIPTION GENERATION Dependent Variable Questions Asked Variance Std. Deviation Become frustrated with patient for asking to try the medication 1.13 1.06 Become annoyed with patient for asking to try the medication 0.96 0.98 Feel uncomfortable with the medication request 1.34 1.16 Communicate to the patient your discomfort with the medication request 0.87 0.93 Attempt to prescribe different medication to keep from promoting patient to ask for medication, if available 0.93 0.96 Provides samples of the medication, if available 0.73 0.86 Provide prescription of the medication if no samples available 1.2 1.09 Simply prescribes the medicine if is anyway relevant, to satisfy the patient 1.11 1.06 4.3 Correlation Regression Analysis SPSS was used to show the relationship between two independent variables i.e attitude of doctors towards DTCA and behavior likelihood if information asked by the patient and its impact on dependent variable which is actual prescription generation if requested by the patient. 4.3.1 Model summary and ANOVA. R value shows 40% relationship between dependent variable and independent variables. R square shows 16.6% of the variant in dependent variable can be predicted by the combination of two independent variable. Durbin Watson value is 2.08 showing that there is very less multicollinearity. ANOVA statistics shows overall model significance, f value is 15.09, and sig value is less than 0.00 which is less than 0.05, and is the indicator of significance, so that we can go for regression analysis of independent variables on dependent variables. Durbin Watson value should be between 1.5 to 2.5 means that there is no or less multicollinearity, here the value is 2.08, it shows less chances of multicollinearity. 4.4 If two independent variables combined collectively, Information + Attitude Data results with individual variables shows very weak relationship. with model significance. So It is considered combined effect of both independent variables on dependent variables. 4.4.1 Model summary and ANOVA. Model Summary shows overall model significance, which is less than 0.05, showing overall model fit, R value shows 78% dependence of dependent variable on independent variable. R square value is 0.61 showing magnitude of relationship between independent variable with dependent variable. 1% change in independent variable with 61 % change in dependent variable. Adjusted R square is the pure magnitude of relationship which is always less than the R square, 0.60. F Change statistics is 239.45 which is more than 1 then we can go for coefficients. ANOVA shows overall model significance with less than 0.05 value, it means the regression analysis be proceeded. Additionally according to second school of thought the regression sum of square should be greater then residual sum of square for better model fit. 4.4.1 Coefficient If t value is greater then 2 means it is significant. And significance value should be less than 0.05 to make a significant relationship. Here t value is 15.47, showing significant relationship, and sig value is less than 0.000. 4.2. Discussion This is similar finding with Ryan Vaithianathan, (2009). Which shows that the attitude of consumer is positive towards information provision to patient if asked and similar with the Brekke Kuhn, 2006 study which shows that the doctors rely on the information provided to them through DTCA. I accept the hypothesis that physicians have positive attitude towards DTCA. And it is accepted that the physicians are comfortable in providing information if asked by patents about any DTCAB. According to statistics shown by Data analysis I accept the hypothesis of positive relationship between general attitude of physicians towards DTCA and behavior of physicians if patient asks information has positive relationship and are correlated with actual prescription generation. Very interestingly it is found that information asking by physician and general attitude are weakly negatively correlated, it can be the area for further research that if more information is asked by patients about any brand may lead to negative attitude of physicians towards DTCA. It is found that through DTCA and patients, it is a way of putting pressure on physicians to change their prescribing behavior, (Ryan Vaithianathan, 2009) It was major concern showed by (Morgan, Mintzes barer, 2003) that the regularities authorities should consider DTCA regulations if it has impact on prescribing behavious, and in this study it has shown that the consumer advertising is creating impact in prescription choosen. This study is providing valueable information for pharmaceutical manufacturers and marketers. If more patients would ask for further information of specific drug, it may lead to the actual prescription generation. This study is also a thought provoking study for physicians that in choosing brands they are influenced by patients which may lead to increased cost and unnecessary medicines prescription. This study can be an eye opener for regularity authorities, DTCA is considered as good by physicians but it should be clearly monitored because it also creates pressure on physicians to prescribe certain brands. VI CONCLUSION Physicians have positive attitude towards DTCA and consider it supplementary in overall health care system. It stimulates patients to visit physician and seek appropriate treatment. Physicians feel comfortable in providing relevant information about DTCAB if asked, and they do not hesitate to prescribe the medicine if it is relevant to disease and patient economic characteristics. Focus of this study was to find the combined impact of attitude and information gathering on actual prescription generation. In future it may be further extended to specific disease area. However pharmaceutical companies should be monitored by regulatory authorities to check DTCA messages. Companies should focus on disease awareness rather on brand focused advertisements. REFERANCES Adeoye S, B. K. (2007 ). Direct to consumer advertising in healthcare: history, benefits, and concerns. Clinical Orthopaedics and Related Research , Volume 457, pp 96-104. Amaldoss, W., He, C. (2009). Direct-to-Consumer Advertising of Prescription Drugs: A Strategic Analysis. MARKETING SCIENCE , Vol. 28 (No. 3), pp. 472-487. Atherly, A., Rubin, P. (Feb 2008). The cost effectiveness of direct to consumer advertising for prescription drugs. Journal of Law Economics , pp. 08-28. Berndt, J. M. (2004). Effects of Direct-to-Consumer Advertising on Medication Choice: The Case of Antidepressants. Journal of Public Policy Marketing , 23 (2), 115-127. Berndt, J. M. (2004). Effects of Direct-to-Con sumer Advertising on Medication Choice: The Case of Antidepressants. Journal of Public Policy Marketing , 23 (2), 115-127. Bradford, D., Kleit, A. N., Nietert, P., Ornstein, S. (2005, August 8). The Effect of Direct to Consumer Television Advertising on the Timing of Treatment. Working Paper Series . Kurt R. Brekkea, Kuhnb, M. (2006). Direct to consumer advertising in Pharmaceutocal markets. Journal of Health Economics , pp. 102-130. Brekke, K. R., Kuhn, M. (July 2005). Direct to consumer advertising in pharmaceutical markets . Journal of Family medicine , Vol.18 (2) pp. 238-321 Donohue, J. M., Cevasco, M., Rosenthal, a. M. (2007). A Decade of Direct-to-Consumer Advertising of Presescription drugs. The new england journal of medicine , Vol . 81 pp. 357-673. E. Murray, L. Pollack, K. Donelan (2003), Direct-to-Consumer Advertising Physicians views of its effects on quality of care and the doctor patient relationship, JABFP, Vol. 16 No. 6 Pg. 513-524 Elizabeth Murray, P. M., Donelan, K., lee, K. (2004). Direct to Consumer Advertising Public Perception of its effects on Health Behaviours, Health Care, and the Doctor-Patient Relationship. The Journal of family Medicine, Vol.17 No. 1, pp. 6-18 Gould, M. F. (2007). Physicians attitudes toward direct-to-consumer prescription drug marketing. Journal of Medical Marketing , Vol. 7 (issue 1 ), 33-44. Green, R. M. (2008). Direct to consumer advertisment and pharmaceutical ethics The case of VIOXX. Journal of Business Ethics , Vol. 15, pp.749-759. Helen Prosser, S. A. (2003). Influences on GPs decision to prescribe new drugs-the importance of who says what. Journal of Family Practice , Vol. 20, (No. 1), 61-68. Herzenstein, M., Misra, S., Posavac, S. S. (2005). How Consumers Attitudes Toward Direct-to-Consumer Advertising of Prescription Drugs Influence Ad Effectiveness, and Consumer and Physician Behavior . Marketing Letters , Vol. 15 ( Number 4), 201-212. Iizuka, T., Jin, G. Z. (2005). The Effect of Prescription Drug Advertising on Doctor Visits. Journal of Economics and Management Strategy , 22 (3). Kurt R. Brekkea, Kuhnb, M. (2006). Direct to consumer advertising in Pharmaceutocal markets. Journal of Health Economics , Vol.19 (2) , Pg.102-130. Lack of Impact of Direct-to-Consumer Advertising on the

Essay --

‘Quest for excellence often begins when we discover a pursuit that absorbs, frees , challenges us and gives us a sense of meaning, joy and passion’. As for me, the pursuit being a research career in Biological sciences, I wish to state in the following paragraphs , my view points and rationale behind my application to the Khorana Scholars Program 2013. I was fortunate to have completed my 12 golden years of schooling in Mahatma Montessori Matric., Madurai – one of the best in the city. The playway method of learning all through my junior years made education a sheer joy and made me versatile in academics as well as extra curricular activities like literature, dramatics and music. My organisational and leadership skills improved significantly because of being entrusted with posts in school governing council and being chosen as the school pupil leader later on. The awe for biological sciences was instilled in high school by my class IX biology teacher, Mr.Ganesan. I then became rooted in pursuing a career in biological sciences. A centum in class X biology exam further strengthen... Essay -- ‘Quest for excellence often begins when we discover a pursuit that absorbs, frees , challenges us and gives us a sense of meaning, joy and passion’. As for me, the pursuit being a research career in Biological sciences, I wish to state in the following paragraphs , my view points and rationale behind my application to the Khorana Scholars Program 2013. I was fortunate to have completed my 12 golden years of schooling in Mahatma Montessori Matric., Madurai – one of the best in the city. The playway method of learning all through my junior years made education a sheer joy and made me versatile in academics as well as extra curricular activities like literature, dramatics and music. My organisational and leadership skills improved significantly because of being entrusted with posts in school governing council and being chosen as the school pupil leader later on. The awe for biological sciences was instilled in high school by my class IX biology teacher, Mr.Ganesan. I then became rooted in pursuing a career in biological sciences. A centum in class X biology exam further strengthen...

Internet Crime Essay example -- Technology Computers Web Essays

Internet Crime New times bring new crimes. Actually, as time moves on and our world becomes more technologically dependant, the same old time-tested crimes evolve to fit the arena of the Net. To be specific, the most common Internet crimes are forgery, assault, fraud, and theft.[1] Identity Identity—it’s our most valuable commodity. It defines who we are and is essential to doing business and carrying on personal relationships. But on the Net, identity is ambiguous. To paraphrase Microsoft's ad campaign, Who do you want to be today? More appropriately, who might want to be you today? Email has become the written communication medium of choice for many of us—it's fast, cheap, convenient, private, and secure. Right? Unfortunately, three out of five is bad. Digital forgery is becoming increasingly common on the Net, particularly email forgery. Virtually anyone can duplicate your email return address and use it to send false, malicious, and even legally actionable messages using what appears to be your name and identity. Forged email can also be used to acquire information, create enmity among friends, ruin reputations, defraud people of money or valuable information such as passwords, and even spread hate messages and false death threats. In short, anything a forger can attempt to accomplish in the paper world can be done in the electronic world--but much more easily. The best—If not the most convenient—way to protect yourself against email forgery is by encrypting your email, rendering the message unintelligible to anyone but its intended recipient. Here are five keys to protecting yourself from forgers. 1- Be alert for any responses to emails that you don't believe you have sent. 2- Be alert... ...rs as passwords. In conclusion, crimes committed through the Internet medium are the same proverbial monkey that has been on society’ back for years, just wearing a different mask. The most common Internet crimes include forgery, assault, fraud, and theft. If you are concerned abut possible security holes in your PC network or Internet connection, go to http://coverage.cnet.com/Content/Features/Dlife/Crime/Quiz2/1,140,,00.html?, take the security survey, and these guys will help you beef up the security of your system. [1] http://coverage.cnet.com/Content/Features/Dlife/Crime/ [2] http://www.news.com/News/Item/0,4,6577,00.html [3] http://www.news.com/News/Item/0,4,120,00.html [4] http://www.metro.ch/avpve/ [5] http://www.bocklabs.wisc.edu/~janda/gtvh_faq.html [6] http://www.usps.gov/ [7] http://www.infowar.com/sample/results.html-ssi

Xenotransplantation Essay -- Medical Research Transplant Donor Essays

Xenotransplantation Physicians today are faced with a growing list of patients awaiting transplants for organs that have failed, but there are not enough donors to meet these needs. Countries all over the world have a â€Å"human organ shortage† and the waiting lists for organ transplants only seem to grow longer (Melo 427). In the United States 62,000 patients needed a kidney, liver, or pancreatic transplant in the year 2001. Xenotransplantation, which refers to the transplantation of organs, cells, or tissues from animal species into human beings, has been heralded as a promising technology that will help us save more lives and lessen the dire shortage of transplantable organs. Organs from pigs, goats, monkeys, chimpanzees, and baboons have been used in xenotransplant experiments conducted so far. It promises to be a good treatment option for patients with end-stage organ failure (Williams 12). The transplant surgery could be scheduled at the patient’s convenience rather than scheduling an emergency surgery as soon as the human donor is found. Patients would be able to receive transplants when they first need them rather than having to wait until a transplant is the only remaining option that can save their lives. When transplants are conducted earlier, the patient will be stronger and have a better chance of recovering. Xenotransplantation appears to have several advantages as a medical procedure, but like any medical procedure it is not without its risks. Before we embrace xenotransplantation as yet another boon of science, we need to consider the ethical dilemmas surrounding this medical technology. History of Xenotransplantation The concept of using animal organs in human beings is not a new one. On... ... Xenotransplantation.† Bioethics. 2001 Vol 15 Number5/6. Nelson, James Lindemann. â€Å"Transplantation through a Glass Darkly.† Hastings Center Report. Sept-Oct 1992: 6-8. [Online] http://online.sfsu.edu/~rone/GEessays/Transplantation.htm â€Å"The Ethical Implications of Xenotransplantation.† American Medical Association. CEJA Reports 2000-2002. [Online] http://www.ama-assn.org/ama/upload/mm/369/ceja_report_113.pdf Veatch, Robert M. The Basics of Bioethics. New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 2000. Williams, Rebecca D. â€Å"Organ Transplants from Animals.† FDA Consumer. June 1996, Vol 30 Issue 5. [Online] http://www.fda.gov/fdac/features/596_xeno.html Windsor, Roger G. â€Å"Spare Body Parts from Animals.† Spectrum: The Wholistic News Magazine. Mar-Apr 1997. â€Å"Xenotransplantation.† Natural Life. Jan-Feb 2000, Issue 71. [Online] http://www.life.ca/nl/71/xeno.html

Russian Literature

Russian literature: History Overview Russian literature has long been a cultural focus of the entire world. It's not surprising that the formation of Russia's first literary traditions goes back to the first century. The adoption of Christianity boosted the development of literacy, philosophy and theological literature. The earliest literary works were not written in the Russian language but in Old Church Slavonic which was developed in the 9th century by Greek missionaries Cyril and Methodius. Old Church Slavonic became the liturgical language of the Orthodox Church, prompting literary activity in Russia.In 988 Vladimir I, Grand Duke of Kyiv, converted to Christianity and made it Russia's official religion. Eventually, religious ties between Russia, the Byzantine Empire, Ancient Rome and Greece strengthened and began to share common traits. As literacy rapidly developed, so did Russian literature. Historical chronicles, sacred scriptures, biblical texts, sermons, biographies of sain ts and other religious writings and poems were translated from Greek into Old Church Slavonic which remained the literary language of Russia until the 17th century.At that time, books served mainly as a means to foster religious awareness. In the long run, Christianity marked the character of the Russian literature. Church literature laid the foundation for the ideas of Russian unity and Russian national identity. First works of Russian literature Byzantine Greek writings influenced the first texts created during the Kyiv period. The most significant sermon, â€Å"Slovo O Zakone I Blagodati† (1050; â€Å"Sermon on Law and Grace†), is a detailed oration written by the head of the Orthodox Church in Russia at that time, Metropolitan Illarion.It is believed to be the first original work of Russian literature. The chronicle â€Å"Povest' Vremennykh Let† (1113; â€Å"The Tale of Bygone Years,† also known as â€Å"The Russian Primary Chronicle†), attribu ted to the monk Nestor, explores the history of the East Slavic peoples, namely Russians, Belarussians, and Ukrainians up to the year 1110. However, the most prominent work of the period is probably â€Å"Slovo O Polku Igoreve† (1185; â€Å"The Tale of Igor's Campaign†). It focuses on a Prince Igor? s failed raid against an army of Asian nomads and is written in lyrical poetic language.The creation of religious scripts went hand in hand with the creation of folk poetry; songs, epics and fairy tales described authentic Russian life and culture. In the late 11th and early 12th century, â€Å"Teaching† by Prince Vladimir Monomakh and â€Å"Wanderings of Daniel† featured a fusion of religious scripts with folk literature. In 1240 the Tatars invaded Kyiv, bringing an early end to this period in culture. For the next 200 years the Tatars occupied most of Russia. While Europe was enjoying the Renaissance, Russian literature was at a standstill.A series of upheav als and riots throughout the 16th and 17th centuries brought political and secular influences to literature. â€Å"Messages of Ivan the Terrible† and the autobiography of Arch Priest Avvakum were the first literary works written in spoken Russian. These works mixed the church and bookish languages with folk speech. One of the most important and notable literary works of the 16th century was â€Å"Domostroi† (â€Å"House-Orderer†). It set the rules for moral behaviour and gave instructions for running a household. In the 16th century folkloric poetry was on the rise as was the popular genre of the secular story of manners.In the 17th century Russian culture was greatly influenced by Western European values. Tsar Peter the Great? s fascination with European culture was looming large and brought the first printed books to Russia, almost all of which were religious in content. A number of Russian poets started composing verses imitating Western authors. In fiction, the influence of Western adventure tales such as â€Å"Don Quixote† by Miguel de Cervantes, is obvious in â€Å"The Tale of Savva Grudtsyn† (â€Å"Povest' o Savve Grudtsyne†) and â€Å"The Tale of Frol Skobeev† (â€Å"Povest' o Frole Skobeeve†).In 1678, the first plays written by a Russian author, Symeon Polotsky, appeared. Step by step, modern Russian literature started to emerge as more and more writers began to develop their own unconventional styles. By the 18th century written Russian finally came into wide use, replacing Old Church Slavonic. Peter the Great and Catherine the Great were keen to promote literature in Russia. Perhaps the most important figure of Russian intellectual life in the 18th century was Mikhail Lomonosov who rose from peasant origins to become a prominent scientist and writer. One of the greatest poets of the time was Gavrila Derzhavin.Russian author Denis Fonvizin dominated the drama. His plays â€Å"Brigadir† (w ritten 1768-1769; published 1790; â€Å"The Brigadier†) and â€Å"Nedorosl? (1782; â€Å"The Minor†) mocked the manners and morals of the upper classes. One of the most interesting non-fiction works of the period was â€Å"Puteshestvie iz Peterburga v Moskvu† (1790; â€Å"Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow†) by Aleksandr Radishchev. It earned its author a ten-year exile to Siberia. Nikolay Karamzin established a Russian prose style in his travel writings with his famous â€Å"Istoriia gosudarstva rossiiskogo† (1818-1824; â€Å"History of the Russian State†).Golden Age of Poetry The 19th century was probably the most fruitful period in the history of Russian literature. Alexander Pushkin Alexander Pushkin 6 June 1799 – 10 February 1837 Mikhail Lermontov Mikhail Lermontov 15 October 1814 – 27 July 1841 Nikolai Gogol Nikolai Gogol 31 March 1809 – 4 March 1852 Ivan Turgenev Ivan Turgenev 9 November 1818 – 3 Septem ber 1883 Lyev Tolstoy Lyev Tolstoy 9 September 1828 – 20 November 1910 Anton Chekhov Anton Chekhov 29 January 1860 – 15 July 1904 The first few decades of the 19th century came to be known as the Golden Age of Poetry.Without a doubt, Aleksandr Pushkin's renowned novel in verse â€Å"Evgeny Onegin† (1823-1831) cemented his name in history. Before the 19th century, drama received very little attention from Russian writers. It continued until two pillars of Russian drama Aleksandr Griboedov (â€Å"Gore ot Uma† 1833; â€Å"The Woes of Wit†) and Aleksandr Ostrovsky (â€Å"Groza,† 1860; â€Å"The Thunderstorm†) stepped into the spotlight. But by the end of the century, several timeless plays were written by Anton Chekhov, for example â€Å"Chaika† (1896; The Seagull).The author of the most famous short story in Russian, â€Å"Shinel† (1842; â€Å"The Overcoat†), Nikolay Gogol, is considered to be the original master of Russian prose of the 19th century. His comic, grotesquely humorous collection of short stories â€Å"Vechera na khutore bliz Dikanki† (1831-1832; â€Å"Evenings on a Farm near Dikanka†) are peppered with the local colour and ambience of Ukraine. Fyodr Dostoyevsky's novels examined political and social issues as well as philosophical and moral problems of Russian society. His â€Å"Crime and Punishment† (1866) is considered to be one of the best novels of all time.Leo Tolstoy, like his contemporary Dostoyevsky, was not just a brilliant novelist but a political thinker and philosopher as well. His novel â€Å"Voina i Mir† (1865-1869; â€Å"War and Peace†) is a family and a historical novel in one and is said to be one of the greatest literary works in the history of world literature. Short fiction and poetry gradually replaced the novel and by the end of the 19th century were the dominant genres of Russian literature. Silver Age Alexander Blok Alexan der Blok 28 November 1880 – 7 August 1921 One of the most gifted lyrical poets produced by Russia after Alexander Pushkin.Impressionism and symbolism replaced social realism. A new breed of Russian poets was inspired by Western European cultures, while Russian culture was gaining in popularity in Europe. Russian poet and novelist Valery Bryusov introduced symbolism to Russian audiences. One of the most sophisticated poets of the time was Aleksandr Blok. His greatest work, â€Å"Dvenadtsat† (1918; â€Å"The Twelve,† 1920), described the mood of Petrograd (now Saint Petersburg) in the winter of 1918 in the wake of the 1917 Bolshevik Revolution.Some of the greatest poets of the 20th century who opposed the Bolshevik Revolution and Soviet rule were Anna Akhmatova (Requiem, 1964), Marian Tsvetaeva and Osip Mandelstam. The last of these was arrested in the 1930s and died in a labour camp. Socialist realism Among those who supported the 1917 Revolution was a prominent Soviet novelist and playwright, Maksim Gorky (â€Å"Mother,† 1907). He was also a founder of socialist realism. After the Revolution, many writers left Russia for Europe and the West.Perhaps one of the most gifted among them was novelist Vladimir Nabokov who emigrated to the United States in 1940 and began writing in English. Under Joseph Stalin, the Soviet regime's enforcement of literary guidelines made many established writers withdraw from literature. Little literature was created at that time. Works by Andrey Platonov and Mikhail Bulgakov disappeared in the 1920s. Although Bulgakov had published several plays and stories, his masterpiece â€Å"Master and Margarita,† completed shortly before his death in 1940, remained unknown until it was published in 1966.After the end of WW2, the guidelines of socialist realism were enforced even more strictly than before, and the period from 1946 until the death of Stalin in 1953 was probably the bleakest in Russian literature of the 20th century. Russian literature in exile However, the decades after Stalin's death saw several thaws. Restrictions over literature were eased. In an effort to cast off Stalin's legacy, Nikita Khrushchev expanded the limits of what could be said in public and written in the press. In the 1960s a number of works that had previously been banned were republished and many writers felt relief.Boris Pasternak finally published his legendary novel â€Å"Doctor Zhivago,† although outside the Soviet Union. At first it was accepted by a Soviet magazine, but then rejected. Eventually it was published in the West in 1957. Pasternak was awarded the Nobel Prize for literature in 1958, but was forced by the Soviet authorities to decline the award. Khrushchev's campaign against Stalin also allowed the publication of another masterpiece, â€Å"Odin den' Ivana Denisovicha† (â€Å"A Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich,† 1963) by Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn.It appeared in the lead ing Soviet literary magazine, causing a sensation. It focused on the realities of life in prison camps to which tens of thousands of people suspected of anti-Soviet views, including Solzhenitsyn himself, were sent. But still, novels by Solzhenitsyn, such as â€Å"Rakovyi Korpus† (â€Å"Cancer Ward,† 1968) and â€Å"V Kruge Pervom† (â€Å"The First Circle,† 1968) could not be published in the Soviet Union. Their publication abroad eventually led to an official campaign against the writer that resulted in his expulsion from the Soviet Union.He was awarded the Nobel Prize for literature in 1970. Among other prominent anti-Soviet authors was the poet Joseph Brodsky, who left the Soviet Union in 1972. In 1987 Brodsky too was awarded the Nobel Prize. Like Solzhenitsyn, he moved to the United States. New faces The early 1990s saw the collapse of the Soviet Union and with it the end of 70 years of state control over literature. Official censorship was over and th e government proclaimed freedom of the press. This long-awaited independence had profound effects on Russian literature. Works by writers